christ4u

Preaching as Communication

2008-07-04T12:00:00.000-07:00

Christian Principles of Communication and the Mission of the Church

Introduction:
Gerhard Von Rad, a German Old Testament scholar, once said that, the best sermon he ever heard was given in the middle of World War11- some of the darkest days for the Germans. With bombs exploding all around and fear striking the hearts of all Germans, this tiny congregation had gathered to hear a young inexperienced preacher. When he stood up to preach, he gingerly and carefully opened up the Bible to his text as if he were, Von Rad said, unwrapping a package of dynamite.
Lives are changed through mere words – may be that is the only way we ever change. Every effort to trace man’s ability to use words in the theory of communication is as old as ancient rhetoric itself. From its earliest beginnings, the church has agonized over language in order to communicate its message. This paper will discuss the emergence of preaching as communication and its impact on the listeners.

The Nature of the Church:
Since Christian preaching has such importance, it is necessary to understand its nature. In the New Testament. Preaching is the proclamation of glad tidings. It is a person receiving a message from God and sharing that message with other people. T.H. Pattison wrote, “ Preaching is the communication of divine truth with a view to persuasion. Henry Sloan Coffin arrived at essentially the same concept. For him “ preaching is truth through personality to constrain conscience at once. Christian preaching could be defined in this way: Preaching is the proclamation of God’s message by a chosen personality to meet the needs of humanity. This definition gives three basic elements in preaching. God’s message, the chosen personality or preacher, and the needs of human beings.

Biblical Understanding of Preaching:
The word preaching appeared in the Old Testament Jonah 1:2; 3:2 & 4 and in Isaiah 61:1. In all these preaching is referred as a commission of proclamation of the righteousness of God, proclaiming the divine judgment. Preaching is also a call to repentance. Therefore to take preaching in a nutshell, preaching is to herald the good news or the gospel. Herald means, announcement. so preaching is always understood as announcement. The prophets understood preaching in Old Testament as proclaiming the judgement, repentance. Such a habit of preaching was practiced in synagogue. This type of preaching may be viewed one – way communication.
In New Testament, preaching is also considered as proclaiming or heralding. We fine some examples in Matt 3:1; Mark 1:14; Acts 10:42; 1Cori 1:23; the understanding of preaching is to evangelize .The word ‘to evangelize’ is to proclaim the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. It is to transfer the story of Jesus to the people. Therefore the preaching now is not one-way. Such a proclamation has transcended the understanding of merely announcing (heralding). To communicate the message of the Good News so that the audience (Receptor) may understand such proclamation and announcement.

1.Preaching as top-down; One- way Communication:
Communication as a top-down preaching has both positive and negative conation as many of us have had the experiences of listening to the preachers and may disagree. We may have disagreed with the interpretation of the text, the logic, or the method yet we listen with respect and found ourselves moved because there was something authentic about the preacher.
The positive side of top-down communication is the chance of preaching becoming an authoritative. For instance, this is how people reacted to Jesus. God came as a man in every respect like us. Friend and foes found him irresistible, He spoke with authority.
Preachers are an extension of his ministry. God comes today, to, through flesh and blood, through those called to preach the gospel. We are not called to be spiritual beings, stripped of our humanities. We are called to let Jesus fulfill aware that of that moment we are the enfleshment of the gospel. The gospel can be communicates only through real, flesh and blood persons, shaped by this world in which we live.
Often times, preaching is not one to one communication but one to many. Nevertheless, one to one communication itself is a complicated process. The authority, the authenticity of the preacher, is the key to preaching effectiveness, yet it remains an elusive quality. The preacher should have a quality of humanness so that his/her communication reaches the masses.

2.The Captive Audience; Audience or message centered preaching.
The audience – centered preaching would help to clarify the goal of the preaching and avoids generalities. Audience accepts the message only when it is realistic and that they can make practical decisions. The preacher should help the congregation to grow step by step. People should realize that they need to make commitment to God and that their needs are met when they hear the essence of preaching.
Many preachers in India take their audience as their captives. They vomit the whole sermon through out the week thinking they would digest it. But to the contrary, many of the audiences become defensive and inculcate wrong information. This nature of preaching makes people go away from the church and eventually lost their faith. It is obvious that the bible talks about four kinds of soils, i.e. the first one is, audiences that hear the message and immediately switch off. The second group as rocky ground, the third group is that full of thorns and the final group is god soil. Nevertheless, audiences that fall under the good soil at times are bored with the kind of captive preaching.

3.Religious Vs. Secular Language
Many preachers on the dais use religious languages that is hard to understand by his mere audiences. Vocabulary such as atonement, Ecclesia etc. are hard to understand by his/her audiences. A preacher is called to engage in a creative use of language. It is advisable that a preacher view reading program as research work. He/she should have a gift of imagination.
A good preacher simplifies the language as much as possible. Jesus used parables. Language represents ideas, feelings and objects. These should not be misinterpreted when we preach. We should understand the bible in their own context. When we use the language we should use the language, which is interesting to the people and knowledgeable, and also acceptable to the people. Eg. Targeting, particularly the audience and minimize the length of words in the sermon.

4. Audience feedback and interaction, during and after sermon:
Most often our preaching is a one –way traffic .The preacher preaches and the people listen. But communication becomes a complete one after a feedback. How do we enable feedback in preaching?
We need to recognize the “body- language” of the people when we preach. For example, if in the middle of our sermon, one of the members of the congregation looks at his/her watch, we should take it as a feedback, which tells us that perhaps we are taking more time than necessary. Another person may nod his/her head as a sign of approval or disapproval to what we say? Do we take it seriously?
There can be an organized feedback session after the worship when we give an opportunity to the people to respond to and to discuss about the sermon.
The minister can use the home visits as occasions for feedback. There can be a dialogue between the people and the preacher on the sermon preached, example on the previous Sunday on such occasions.

Reflection
Today we heard from the Hebrew Bible in the Book of Jeremiah the story where Jeremiah tells us how God spoke to him directly, not in a dream. Jeremiah was probably about 24 years old at the time. God appoints Jeremiah a prophet to preach righteousness to the people. Jeremiah replies to God, "Truly, I do not know how to speak, for I am only a boy." The Lord answers Jeremiah, "Do not say, 'I am only a boy.' For you shall go to all to whom I send you, and you shall speak whatever I command you." "Then the Lord put out his hand and touched my mouth, and the Lord said to me, 'Now I have put my words in your mouth..."' [Jeremiah, ch. 1, v. 4-9]

This story holds special interest to us, because first, it tells us that God sometimes communicates directly with people, as the Lord did with Jeremiah. And second, it tells us that God sometimes communicates with us indirectly through people like Jeremiah.
So I'm going to talk about how God communicates with us, how we communicate with each other, and how the Bible can teach us something about communicating, something that could affect the way we live.

Communication -to-persuade
Every individual considers herself or himself to be something of a good communicator. But we can very easily separate the amateurs from the professionals, the sheep from the goats. Just wait until someone tells us that to persuade people, we simply need to give them "the facts." More often, it's not "facts" but faith that's required to change people's minds
Professional communicators understand the need for a trustworthy source. That's why, for example, so many companies publish their ads in the television channels rather than in, say, the National Doordarshan. Or why so many public relations people try to persuade NDTV to cover their news stories. Faith and trust in the source means everything. The Television channels and NDTV are trusted -- justifiably.
And what is our faith that there is a God but our trust? No "facts" exist that prove to us that there is a God who created us and who loves us. Yet, we believe it. When we look at the world around us, we believe that only God could have created our world, our universe, and our cosmos. When we pray to God and wonder if the Lord hears what is in our heart, our life experience has given us faith that sooner or later, in God's way -- not mine – our prayers will be answered. Sometimes, we don't recognize God's response when it comes. The Lord doesn't speak to us as God spoke so clearly to Jeremiah. But some time later, often much later, we recognize that things in our life have changed, perhaps even that we have changed in ways we could hardly have foreseen. Our recognition comes from faith in God, not "facts."

When we spend our entire working life trying to communicate effectively and to persuade, we get to know what works and what doesn't. Jesus used his own special style to communicate. He usually made his point through a parable -- telling a story in a way that people could understand. Jesus used parables and analogies to bridge the gap between what his audience already accepted, and what he was trying to persuade them to accept

Seek a Receptive Audience
This is a lesson that public figures of our day recognize immediately: we should not waste our breath on those who don't want to listen rather direct your messages primarily to those who are most likely to be receptive.
When we communicate today, too often our highest priority is: don't offend anyone at all by anything we say. Jesus didn't believe that. Jesus taught us that telling the truth is more important than winning a popularity contest in public opinion. Telling the whole truth instead of half-truths. He stood at the foot of the mountain and told his newly-appointed disciples, "Blessed are you when people hate you, and when they exclude you, revile you and defame you on account of the Son of Man. Rejoice in that day, and leap for joy, for surely your reward is in heaven... Woe to you when all speak well of you, for that is what their ancestors did to the false prophets." [Luke ch. 6 v. 22-23]

Conclusion
From the above discussions we have seen that preaching plays a vital role in a Christian communication. Nevertheless, preaching must be a source of encouragement and not boredom. The essence of Christian faith demands effective preaching. Preaching is essential to Christianity. It began with the proclamation of an event. God entered human history in Jesus Christ. Christ came to earth and pitched his tent among men. He died, was resurrected, and ascended to heaven. Therefore, we as his followers should adopt his methods and principles of communication so that our communication may become effective in bringing froth the mission of God here on earth.
Bibliography
Broadus, A. John. On the Preparation and Delivery of Sermons 4th ed. Canada: Harper & Row Publishers, 1979.
David, C R W. Communication in Theological Education: A Curriculum. Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 1988.
Halvorson, L. Arndt. Authentic Preaching. USA: Augsburg Publishing House, 1982.
Tangaraj, M, Thomas. Preaching as Communication. Mudurai: Vanguard Press, 1986.
Unpublished Material
Class Lecture by Sir. Manoj Samuel on Worship and Preaching 2005.
Webliography
Chaplin (MAJ) David P. Hillis. Preaching in communication. http://www. Usaches.army.mil/TACarchive/ACCOM/hillis.htm 5: 40 Pm (07/02/06).

Positivism

2008-07-04T11:57:00.001-07:00

INTRODUCTION

Positivism is a way of seeing the world, a philosophical orientation that views the material world as the only reality. The scientific method is used to find new information about the material world. Positivists depend on underlying patterns that humans can discover accurately. Once we find these patterns, then we can divide them into smaller parts to learn something about the whole. The scientific method is perceived as an objective, value-free way to view the world.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF POSITIVISM

The broad movement of thought which marked the second half of the nineteenth century is called Positivism. The name is due to the fact that thinkers returned to the appreciation of positive facts so as to restore the world of nature, which the Idealists had reduced to a mere representation of the ego. The Positivists conceived of primordial matter as a unique reality having the power of evolving from the lower to the higher forms, mechanically and by means of immanent energy. This evolution was even extended to include man. Positivist philosophy consists in knowing the fundamental laws, which govern matter in its process of evolution. The founder of Positivism was Auguste Comte; its most representative thinkers were English; its remarkable materialistic development occurred in Germany.

THE REASON FOR THE EMULATION OF POSIVISM
In France, the Enlightenment, based on naturalistic thinking, resulted in the disturbing social and political changes of the Revolution. After the Revolution the popular materialistic theories faded and new philosophies appeared. Excessive radical liberalism aroused a conservative reaction.

The opposite to materialism appeared in the supernatural philosophy of Joseph de Maistre (1754-1821) and the current psychology of the times:

Cabanis, the materialist, called attention to the difficulty of explaining vital feelings, instinctive reactions, and elements of the conscious life by the external senses.

Maine de Biran (1766-1824) emphasized inner experience (feeling of effort) and declared it to be the central element of consciousness and basic to our notions of causality, unity, etc.;
Royer-Collard (1763-1845) was influenced by the common-sense philosophy of the Cambridge Platonist, Thomas Reid;

Victor Cousin (1792-1867), an inspirer of French education, developed an eclectic spiritualistic keynote following Reid, Schelling, Hegel, and others.

The reform of human society, based on liberty, equality, fraternity, remained a dream of French thinkers. Social evolution could be achieved through education and enlightenment.

Claude Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) conceived the idea of a new science of society that would result in the economic and intellectual emancipation of man, readjusting the inequalities of property, power, and happiness; thus, a new Christianity was needed, built not on self-denial but love of the poor and lowly, and the sciences must give foundation to this reconstruction and the sciences must be reformed to achieve this reconstruction of society. Saint-Simon regarded the medieval age as the age of construction, spiritual and social organization. To this spirit man must return. The new system of thought must be a positive philosophy based on experience and science.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Auguste Comte (picture) was born in Montpellier, the son of an orthodox Catholic family. He attended the polytechnic school in Paris and acquired knowledge of the exact sciences and the philosophy of Saint-Simon. After leaving school he studied biology and history and earned a living by giving lessons in mathematics. He became associated with Saint-Simon for a number of years, disagreed with him and worked independently. Comte tried several times to obtain a professorship but without success.

Comte's objective was the reform of society. To achieve this end he contended for a positive social science, and worked at it throughout his life. He argued that the theology and philosophy of the Middle Ages represented primitive thought. The new natural sciences indicated that a new social science should be built on observation and experience (positive knowledge). His major works are Course of Positive Philosophy and System of Positive Polity.

Doctrine
According to Comte, historical observations on the process of human society show that man has passed through three stages:

1.The theological state, in which nature was mythically conceived and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from supernatural beings;

2. The metaphysical stage, in which nature was conceived of as a result of obscure forces and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from them;

3. The positive stage, in which all abstract and obscure forces are discarded, and natural phenomena are explained by their constant relationships.
Comte extended the law of the three stages to include all reality. The progress of the sciences is subject to the same law. Comte was the founder of a "positive religion" in which there was the cult of a positive trinity -- the Great Being (humanity), the Great Medium (the world-space), and the Great Fetish (the earth) -- with temple, pontiff, and priests.

Comte advocates two phases of positivistic philosophy:
ü Social Statics -- recognizing society as a fact with laws that constitute the social order;
ü Social Dynamics -- recognizing the evolution of society in its history and progress.

In his later life Comte laid great stress on the emotional and practical life. Reason and science are brought into relationship. Ethics is made the highest in his hierarchy of the sciences (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, ethics). Humanity is the "God" of positivism and the object of worship. A new Christianity is presented:

The first religion is a reverence for nature -- all is God (pantheism).
The second religion is the worship of the moral law as authority.
The third religion is the infinite power revealed in nature which is the source and end of the moral ideal -- morality is the nature of things.
Positivism ends in dogmatism and becomes a system of metaphysics.

The positive contributions of Positivism in general to the Perennial Philosophy
Positivism made no contributions at all in the areas of theory of knowledge, metaphysics, theory of nature, and philosophical psychology, and was manifestly unintelligible and incorrect in the area of ethics or moral philosophy. Overall, Positivism has been a negative factor in the development of philosophical truth. We still suffer from this intellectual insanity today.

Positivistic Assumptions surrounding deviance
Deviance is real
Deviants possess certain traits, commonalities.
Understanding these traits gives us an understanding of the "causes" of deviance

Positivistic Approaches:
Ø Are characterized by Essentialism
Ø Seek understanding of Cause and Effect (forces, determinism)
Ø Have "objective" explanation as their goal

Theory of Action-Reaction
Ø Action is rational and non-problematic
Ø Deviants deviate and are labeled as such. Enforcement is directed at maintaining Order.
Ø Norms: protect the group, They are enacted for the common good.
Ø Deviance/deviants harm society.
Ø Social control is rational, and directed towards restoring societal integration
Ø Question is: Why do they do it? Discover cause; control individual (group); restore order.

Critical Analysis
Ø Positivist approaches tend to ignore the subjective experience of the deviant and the meaning the behavior has for the actor.
Ø They blindly accepts the "wrongness" of deviance (ideology supports the status quo)
Ø Issue of relativity and constructionism and definition of the situation is glossed over
Ø Problem of determinism--final/absolute causes?
Ø The question of objectivity is not addressed, but assumed
Ø Constructionism Critiques Positivism

1. Positivism Ignores Subjective Experience, or the meaning to the participants
By only studying the objective features of an act; meaning is ignored. For the Constructionist, meaning is the heart of the social process. Two actions that are superficially and mechanically similar may mean very different things to the participants as opposed to the individuals who react to the participants and what they are doing. i.e. homosexuality. So, what something is, is entirely dependent on how it is interpreted by the relevant audience, including the actor. "Meaning is not inherent in the act; it must be constructed". Thus, an act "is" nothing until it is categorized, conceptualized and interpreted. It is this subjective process that locates the act as a specific instance of a general type of behavior.

2. Positivists should be skeptical toward Determinism
Causality, or to say that one factor caused or causes another cannot be determined with any real degree of precision.

3. Positivists are overly naive toward objectivity
True objectivity is impossible. Every observer is to a degree contaminated by personal, political and ideological sympathies. We cannot avoid taking sides. So, pursuing and reporting the facts is always enmeshed in ideological and political choices.

Tips on Leadership Skills

2008-07-04T11:54:00.000-07:00

Definition of Skill

The ability to do something well usually after specialized training.
Many leaders face challengers because the unaware of these important Leadership skill. Let us walk through some of the important elements a leader will do when faced with a challenge.[1]

3. INTERPERSONAL SKILLS IN LEADERSHIP

3.1. Leadership skills. The ability to deal with those you serves, and the problems that come with power, authority, and dependence.
3.2. Peer Leadership. The ability to establish and maintain net a week of contacts with equals.
3.3. Decision making skills. The ability to work with problems and find solution in difficult times.
3.4. Conflict Resolution Skill. The ability to meditate conflict and disturbances.
3.5. Resource Allocation Skill. The ability to decide among alternative use of time and other scarce organizational recourses.
3.6. Information Processing Skill. The ability to extract, validate and dissimilar information.
3.7. Entrepreneurial Skill. The ability to take sensible risks and implement innovative ideas.
3.8. Skills of introspection. The ability to understand the position of a leader and their impact on the organization.[2]

4. LEADERSHIP AND DELIGATION (leader Skill)

Text.Colossians.2.2.
While delegation is important as the organization grows, so is the need of the leader to keep their skills and techniques sharp and defined. There are times to deligate, not to deligate, but do it you. These times will become clear but it is essential that flexibility is part of the leader’s life.
4.1.Never postpone important projects:
There is a clear difference between important and urgent. If the Leader only works with the urgent they will discover that vision will became a fire department.
4.2.Show Wisdom and Skill:
Those working with, you will need guidance and help. Time and energy must be available for the individual to succeed.
4.3.Give authority with the task:
If you can’t do this, then don’t delegate… do it yourself!! .
4.4.Don’t Overload:
Do not put too much on to a key player who could become dissatisfied and quickly discouraged.

4.5.Deligation has a purpose:
Not so that the Leader will have free time! Delegation, when done effectively, will allow the Leader to pursue more important issues.

5. QUALITY IS PEIPLE SKILL.
Definition:
People skills includes sensitivity to the thoughts and the feelings of others, and the ability to listen means listen to the ideas of others.
Leaders must have people skill. They must be able to relate to winsomely to a wide range of people, to folks with personality quirks, power issues, and self-esteem deficiencies.
5.1. Listening well:
David Lundy says that is no question in his mind that the Leadership Skill set, especially in the early years, has been listening well, even when I did appear to be listening intently to some one, I must, confess that, was quiet more often because I was busy formulating in my own mind how I was going to answer the person talking then I was observed in seeking understanding.
5.2. The art of delegation:
Former president of world vision, Ten Engstrom, claims that delegation is the single most important skill that can be acquired by the Christian executive.

MISSIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Skills are important for exercising Leadership. Some learn these skills during their education. Some have a few of them as God-given talents. Many learn skills through their life experience. All others concisely learn their Skills in specific learning program. This is true in all situations where leadership has to be exercised. Many Skills overlap with each other but there is no excuse for learning and developing them. God expect Skillful leader, who are filled with His spirit and are able to fulfill his purpose in this world. If we are called to, it is our responsibility to learn, develop and multiply the required skills and fulfill our calling faithfully.
There is no dichotomy between Spiritual and professional skills. Leadership Skills are common to all areas. We need to learn from management, psychology, science and other related fields and use them with the power of God to fulfill His purpose.

CONCLUSION

Leadership, is not an easy, nobody said it would be. The world is hungry for Leaders who after vision and face their challenges in such a way that keep their sanity, morality, and Christian commitment. These Leaders are the one who are willing to get up in the morning and recognize the need of practice the Skill of effective Leadership. Interpersonal Skills are the natural talent as well as we can try to develop in our personality. Interpersonal Skills are giving confidential aim and purpose to lead and manage. More than that it is the blessing of God and the gift of God.

[1]. Scott Wilson, The Challenge of Leadership (Assam: Barkataki & co. pvt. Ltd, 1998)
[2] Ibid, 30.

EXEGESIS ON MATTHEW 5: 13- 20

2008-07-04T11:47:00.000-07:00

EXEGESIS ON MATTHEW 5: 13- 20

“JESUS’ TEACHING ON FUNCTIONS AND MOTIVES OF THE INHERITERS”
(Presented by Lenin Elijah)
(On: 9th Sept 05.)
INTRODUCTION

The passage Matthew 5:13- 20, beautifully fits into the content of, “ the citizens of the kingdom”, where Matthew does not find it necessary to record the early Judean ministry of Jesus, therefore he directly finds pleasure in bringing Jesus directly after the temptation experience and finds it easy to say that Jesus was on a mountain and the recipients according to Matthew are Jesus’ disciples, but whereas Luke includes the multitude along with the disciples. However Jesus proceeds to give a practical application that Christians are not merely to be sufficient within their own dimensions, but rather to influence the vicinity around them, and He moves further in inspecting their inner thoughts and motives which plays a imperative role in their out ward actions. Thereby he reaches to a new way of hermeneutics in handling things of the kingdom of God.

TRANSLATION : -

5:13 "You are the salt of the earth. But if the salt loses its saltiness, how can it be made salty again? It is no longer good for anything, except to be thrown out and trampled by men.

5:14 "You are the light of the world. A city on a hill cannot be hidden.

5:15 Neither do people light a lamp and put it under a bowl. Instead they put it on its stand, and it gives light to everyone in the house.

5: 16 In the same way, let your light shine before men, that they may see your good deeds and praise your Father in heaven.

5:17 "Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them.

5: 18 I tell you the truth, until heaven and earth disappear, not the smallest letter, not the least stroke of a pen, will by any means disappear from the Law until everything is accomplished.

5: 19 Anyone who breaks one of the least of these commandments and teaches others to do the same will be called least in the kingdom of heaven, but whoever practices and teaches these commands will be called great in the kingdom of heaven.

5: 20 For I tell you that unless your righteousness surpasses that of the Pharisees and the teachers of the law, you will certainly not enter the kingdom of heaven.
Form/Structure/Setting
A. The tone of the sermon set in the midst of the beatitudes, the evangelist next presents two comprehensive statements about the necessity of living in a way that reflects the good news of the kingdom, which are, in short, “kingdom” ethics—instructions for how those who are recipients of the kingdom are to live. The emphatic uJmei`", “you yourselves,” in each maxim brings out this emphasis. It is particularly important to note that the kingdom precedes the ethics; there is no insistence that people are to live this way in order to receive the kingdom. The disciples are first identified as salt and light, and even here being precedes doing. It is because they are salt and light that they are expected to behave in appropriate ways. The two maxims about salt and light thus serve as an introduction for what is given in detail in the material that follows[1].

B. Matthew is unique among the Gospels in placing these two main metaphors side by side in the form of maxims in parallel structure. The salt metaphor, however, is found also in Mark 9:50 and Luke 14:34–35. Luke seems to dependent on the Markan parallel, although, in one word (mwranqh`/, “loses its taste”), Luke agrees with Matthew against Mark. Luke’s second verse (14:35) is not found in Mark but is similar in content to Matt 5:13c, especially in the reference to “casting out” tasteless salt. Mark alone has the corresponding comment: “Have salt in yourselves and be at peace with one another” (9:50)[2].

The metaphor of a lamp upon a lamp stand is found in Mark 4:21 and Luke 8:16 (and 11:33), however, it occurs in reference to the mission of Jesus and still they use it in two different ways. Luke 11:33 is followed, on the other hand, by material that occurs in Matt 6:22–23. Matthew alone has the imperative about letting your light shine. The wording in all three Synoptic parallels, moreover, varies considerably. Therefore one can conclude the light on the lamp stand metaphor originated from a common starting point, and also they have independent oral traditions with the work of the individuals[3].

C. The two declarative maxims of this pericope (vv 13 and 14) are exactly parallel in form: to; a{la" th`" gh`", “the salt of the earth,” is parallel to to; fw`" tou` kovsmou, “the light of the world.” The discussion following each maxim is parallel in content, though not in form, focusing on the uselessness of salt that is not salty and light that is hidden. The second maxim is followed by another metaphor (v 14b) that makes the same point as the discussion that follows: “a city on a hill cannot be hidden.” V 16 contains the imperative application of the second maxim (and the first by implication). This imperative is the subject of the entire sermon: to belong to the kingdom necessitates reflecting the light of the kingdom through one’s good deeds. The imperative, however, receives its force from the indicative: i.e., you are the light; let your light shine[4].

D. Matthew’s material is probably drawn from oral tradition. It is impossible to know the extent to which the evangelist is responsible for the present form of the pericope. V 14b is a somewhat awkward mixing of metaphors interpreting the argument about light. It may therefore be a later accretion to the original material, but at what time we cannot say. If the sermon is essentially the construction of the evangelist using pieces of oral tradition, then his creativity may be seen in his placement of this passage here, immediately following the beatitudes and prior to the detailed instruction provided by the sermon. The parallel structure of the pericope argues for the evangelist’s having taken over material from the oral tradition[5].
E. In this pericope, only v 18 finds a partial Synoptic parallel. Luke 16:17 reads, “It is easier for heaven and earth to pass away, than for one stroke of a letter in the law to be dropped.” Obviously, these are different renditions of the same saying. Matthew’s version adds the reference to “one jot,” which may be an elaboration occurring in the tradition. Matthew’s final e{w" (“until”) clause, finding no parallel in the Lukan version, gives the strong appearance of having been added by the evangelist as an explanation and a strengthening of his point. One other related saying, which refers to the passing away of heaven and earth in contrast to the permanence of Jesus’ words, occurs in verbatim agreement in all three Synoptics (Matt 24:35; Mark 13:31; Luke 21:33)[6].
F. The four verses of this pericope, although related in theme, are not interrelated or interdependent in such a way that they form a single entity. Instead, they are readily separable without any loss of meaning and thus could have come initially from different contexts. On the other hand, the verses did cohere in the evangelist’s mind, and every attempt should be made to consider them as a unified whole. The key statement in the pericope is, of course, v 17. The stress of the passage is evident from the repetition in the words “I did not come to destroy” after the words “think not that I came to destroy.” V 18, which describes the permanent authority of the law, is prefaced by the formula “verily I say to you” and contains a double e{w" a[n (“until”) clause, chiastically constructed, making it both awkward in structure and difficult to understand. V 19 contains a beautiful symmetry of form in the contrast between the one who fails to keep the commandments and the one who keeps them. The repetition and symmetry make this verse ideal for memorization; it could well have circulated as an independent logion used to introduce or to conclude ethical teachings of Jesus. V 20 has the “I say unto you” formula again, emphatically pointing to the righteousness that is the subject of the following verses. The reference to entering the kingdom of heaven binds this verse to the preceding one, so that it serves as a bridge between what precedes and what follows[7].

G. The perspective contained in this pericope is especially useful to the evangelist in his presentation of the gospel to his Jewish-Christian audience, though he might not have composed this material; it is clear that he was a passive transmitter of the tradition available to him. He is responsible at least for the present combination of these four separate verses, which lends emphasis to the whole. The evangelist, moreover, has probably put his own stamp on the traditional material, shaping it so as to make the strongest possible impact upon his Jewish-Christian readers[8].

EXEGESIS ON MATTHEW 5: 13- 20

V 13. Jesus describes his disciples (the uJmei`", “you,” is emphatic) as to; a{la" th`" gh`", “the salt of the earth.” Here according to William Hendricksen salt has many characteristics: whiteness, pungency, flavor, antiseptic, prevents and retards decay and it also has a negative function i.e. it combats deterioration, works secretly and its influence is real, similarly Christians are combating moral and spiritual decay and though the world is corrupt, only God would know how it would it be without restraining power of the life and prayers of the saints (Gen 18: 26- 32)[9] and to S.R Driver the saying of Jesus is probably proverbial and the idea underlying “salt” is probably its use as a preservative and therefore the disciples are the elements in the world who keep it wholesome and control the decay and the consequent judgment, but since the salt may become useless for house hold purposes and thrown out of doors, so the disciples should beware that they loose their essential Christian character. And it may become useless only when it is soiled mixed with dirt and other extraneous substances as it becomes practically useless[10]. To this verse Frank E. Gaebelein gives the explanation that, salt in the ancient world was used to flavor foods and even in small doses as a fertilizer, above all as a preservative, especially with meat to slow its decay. It was a precious commodity and the Greeks called it divine, and from earliest times salt was considered as an offering to the gods, to say all Hebrew meat offerings were salted (Lev.2:13). Thus one can understand the fact that the ancient Romans regarded salt as a symbol of purity as they said that salt came from the purest of all things i.e. the sun and the sea[11].
But still strictly speaking salt cannot loose its saltiness, as Sodium Chloride is a stable compound. But most salt in the ancient world derived from marshes or the lake, rather than by evaporation of salt water, and therefore contains many impurities, and could be reached out, leaving a residue so dilute it was of little worth[12]. According to James Burtun Coffmann, salt was accepted and collected as taxes by the Romans from the people of the holy land, as the main source of salt was the Dead Sea,[13] and John Mac Arthur adds to it saying that the Romans held, except for the sun, nothing was more valuable than salt and often the Roman soldiers were paid in salt and in many ancient societies salt was used as a mark of friendship and also in the ancient Near East salt was frequently used to bind a covenant[14]. So oppressive were these taxes that the people adulterated the salt with sand or other earthly material. The government purified the salt by spreading it in big vats or tanks, filling them with water and drawing off the concentrated salt solution. Indeed the salt has lost its savor because it was no longer salt. It was fit to be trodden under foot. And other way was the surface waters of the Dead Sea, on evaporation, have a chemical salts content of about 31%Sodium Chloride, 13% Calcium Chloride, and 48% Magnesium Chloride, together with other impurities. The Calcium and Magnesium Chlorides are hygroscopic (taken out of the air) and this will thus literally dissolve the sodium Chloride. A bitter tasting composition results. It was a custom those days to store vast amount this salt in houses that had earthen floors. In time, the salt next t the door spoiled because of the dampness. Since it would be harmful fertile to fertile land because of its salt content, and no man would allow it to be thrown in the field. The only place left was the street, where it was trodden under foot of man[15].

In modern Israel savorless salt is still said to be scattered in the soil of flat roofs and this helps to harden the soil and prevents leaks and since the roofs serve as playground and places for public gathering, the salt still is being trodden underfoot. This explanation negates the attempt some to support that, precisely because pure salt cannot loose its favor. And the verb “mwraivnein” means “to become or to make foolish” (e.g., Sir 23:14; Rom 1:22; 1 Cor 1:20). The unusual use of it here to describe what has lost its saltiness goes back to the underlying Hebrew root, lpt.[16] Therefore Jesus is saying that true disciples cannot loose their effectiveness and therefore Jesus’ disciples are to act as a preservative in the world where moral standards are low and constantly changing, or even non-existence. And therefore they can discharge this function only if they themselves retain their virtue[17].

“but if the salt becomes… by men”, the salt form the marshes and lagoons or from the rocks in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea acquires a sour or alkaline taste, because of its mixture with gypsum, etc. It is then literally, “good for nothing” but to be thrown away and trampled underfoot (Ezek 47:17). Jesus as he walked on earth, saw many Pharisees and scribes, people who advocated a formal legalistic religion in the place of the true religion proclaimed by the ancient prophets in the name. Thus large and large the salt was it had lost its flavor in the religion and the life of Israel. Here the implication is clear, just as salt having lost its flavor cannot be restored, so also there who were trained in the knowledge of the truth, but resolutely set themselves against the exhortation of the Holy Spirit, hardened their hearts and unwilling to repent will find a difficult place to restore their flavor (Matt 12: 32; Heb 6: 4- 6), therefore let which is named salt be salt indeed[18].

V 14. Here “You” is emphatic, i.e. to say you my followers and none others are the light of the world. Though the Jews saw themselves as the light of the world (Rom 2: 19), the true light is the suffering servant (Is 42:6)[19] fulfilled in Jesus and derivately his disciples constitute the new light probably as the light of Israel (Eph 5: 8-9). Light was a universal religiously symbol in the O.T as well as the in the N.T, it most frequently symbolizes purity as opposed to filth, truth or knowledge as opposed to error or ignorance and divine revelations and presence as opposed to reprobation and abandonment by God[20]. In verse 14a, William explains that light is scripture which indicates the true knowledge of the God (Ps 36:9; Matt 6: 22, 23), goodness, righteousness and truthfulness (Eph 5: 8,9); joy, gladness, true happiness (Ps 97: 11; Is 9 1-7), it symbolizes the best which is, love, laughter and contrasted with darkness, dullness, depravity and despair. When light is mentioned at times revealed knowledge is mentioned and other times it includes all the blessings of “salvation” (Ps 27: 1). The statement “You are the light of the world” probably means that the citizens of the kingdom are not only blessed with these endowments, but are also the means used by God to transmit them to the men who surround them The light possessor become light transmitters, and to say collectively believers are “the light” (Phil 2: 15) and may be even include individuals in the mind of Jesus though the emphasis is collective[21]. John Mac Arthur compares salt and the light saying that salt is hidden, light is obvious. Salt works secretly and light openly, salt works from within, light from without. Salt is more the indirect influence of the Gospel, while light is more its direct communication. Salt works primarily through out living, while light works primarily through what we teach and preach. Salt is largely negative i.e. it can retard corruption, but it cannot change corruption into incorruption, whereas light is more positive which not only reveals what is wrong and false but also helps produce what is righteous and true[22].

However Christians are never a light in and by themselves. They are light, “in the Lord” (Eph 5: 8); Christ is the true, the original “light of the world” (Jn 8: 12; 19:5; 12: 35,36; II Cor 4: 6). Therefore believers are the light of the world in the secondary or derived sense, He is the sun and the believers are the moons that cannot shine by themselves but rather reflect the sun’s light. Therefore as Christ’s followers one should remain in living contact with the original light, so that we can be a light to others[23]. Thereby, God’s people are to proclaim God’s light in the world engulfed in darkness, just as their Lord came to shine His light for those in darkness (Luke 1: 79)[24].

V15 “Neither do men light a candle, and put it under a bushel…giveth light to all that are in the house”
It is very evident that the proper place for a candle or a lamp stands, is not under a bushel or under a bed. According to Donald A Hagner, the purpose of a lamp is to give light, and thus it is placed upon a stand. “pa`sin toi`" ejn th`/ oijkiva/”, “to all who are in the house,” and therefore should not be understood in a restrictive sense but as parallel in meaning to the general tw`n ajnqrwvpwn (“the people”) of vv 13 and 16. That is to say all are in view. The word luvcno", here refers to an ordinary oil-burning household lamp (cf. Luke 15:8). When the lamp was lit, it was placed upon or hung from a stand so as to provide maximum benefit from the light. The movdio" was a common vessel used in measuring grain (about one peck, or 8.75 liters). The suggestion that the measuring vessel was used to extinguish a burning lamp and that the point of the saying is “one does not light a lamp to put it out” is not a convincing statement. But the whole issue is whether that light is seen or not[25].

According to James Burton verses 15-16 set forth instructions regarding the Christian light, or influence in the world (1) Christ forbade hiding it under a bushel (5: 14), that is permitting business and commerce to obscure one’s influence for the truth. (2) He warned it against hiding it under a vessel (Luke 8: 16) i.e. permitting cares, duties, and obligations of life to take over faith. (3) He prohibited hiding it under the bed of licentiousness, laziness, or idleness (Luke 8:16). And according to Oliver B. Greene the “Bushel” mentioned is a measuring container. Sometimes such container held a peck, sometimes half a bushel or a bushel. The size of the container is not important, however, the important thought is that we are not to try to conceal our light. All believers are light but not all believers shine in the same strength or power. Just as there are lighthouses with powerful beacon lights to guide the ships at sea, and lower lights along the shore to bring the ships safe into harbor. Therefore some Christians can be beacons and others are lower lights[26].

V 16. “In the same way …praise your father in Heaven” Here according to James Burton, for the statement, Let your light shine… here the command is to glorify God through an abundance of good works. Origen against Celsus quoted this place and referred to the light of Christians as a “ brilliant and unfading wisdom…the very reflection of everlasting light,” and also argued form this that Christians not bow down before the sun, moon, or the stars, seeing they themselves are light, and from the very same source[27]. Good works …The word ‘kalos, mentioned is verse sixteen set the tone for the rest for the sermon. These good works which are to be performed out of a pure heart as the hallmark of the disciples’ lives are set forth in Matthew 5:17- 7: 12[28].According to Mac Arthur, here Jesus uses here does not so much emphasize quality- though that obviously is important- as it does attractiveness beautiful appearance. Letting our light shine before men allows them to see our good works, the beauty the Lord has worked in us. To see good works by us is to see Christ in us. That is why Jesus says, let your shine. It is not something we create or make up, but something we allow the Lord to do through us. It is God’s light; our choice is whether to hide or let it shine. To say according to Oliver B. Greene good works do not save, nor do they add to salvation; but one who is saved and one who is alive in Christ will work, which may not be the same kind or the same amount of work to all believers, but for sure it can attract others to Christ. We are saved by God’s grace through faith; but we are also “His workmanship” created in Christ Jesus unto good works, which God hath before ordained that we should walk in them, but to the contrary James Burton says, that it is very clear in that Jesus never gave the slightest encouragement to the delusion that people are saved by faith only. To say good works were considered to be a most necessary and primary requirement on the part of all who would truly follow Christ and would through Him hope to have abundant entrance into the everlasting kingdom (19:17)[29].

Here the author Mac Arthur says that the purpose of letting our light shine and reveal our good works is not to bring attention or praise to ourselves, but to God. Our intent should be that, in what we are and in what we do, others may see God in order that they may glorify our father who is in heaven. Here Jesus speaking of the father emphasis God’s tenderness and intimacy, and speaking of His being in Heaven emphasis His majesty and holiness, as he is pictured dwelling in the splendor of His eternal holy home. Our good works are to magnify God’s grace and power. This is the supreme calling of our life: glorifying God. Everything we do is to cause others to give praise to the God who is the source of all that is good. The way we live should lead those around us to glorify (doxazo, from which we get doxology) the heavenly Father[30].

V 17 “Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law and the prophets…to fulfill”. Such an expression implies that He knew that there was a danger of their thinking so[31], and possibly some had actually said this of Him, especially the Pharisees would be sure to say this, He disregarded the oral tradition, which the held to be equal in authority to the written law and he interpreted the written law according to His spirit, and not as they did, according to the rigid letter. He did not keep the weekly fasts, nor observe the weekly fasts, nor observe the elaborated distinctions between clean and unclean, and he consorted with outcasts and sinners. He neglected the traditional modes of teaching, and preached in a way of His own. Above all, he spoke as if he himself were an authority, independent of the law. Even some of His own followers may have been perplexed, and have thought that he proposed to supersede the Law. Therefore he defends His relationship to the law, making a striking implication as to his person by using the verb “hlqon” twice in this verse[32].

The formula "Do not think that" or "Never think that," is repeated by Jesus also in 10:34 (cf. 3:9). And Jesus' two sayings were designed to set aside potential misunderstandings as to the nature of the kingdom; but neither obviously flows out of open confrontation on the issue at stake. We see that Matthew has not yet recorded any charge that Jesus was breaking the law. Some have argued that many Jews in Jesus' day believed that law would be set aside and a new law introduced at Messiah's coming[33]. Here the introductory words "Do not think that" must be understood, not as the refutation of some well-entrenched and clearly defined position, but as a teaching device Jesus used to clarify certain aspects of the kingdom and of his own mission and to remove potential misunderstandings. Since when comparing with 10:34 shows that the reverse may not be absolute. Few would want to argue from 5: 9 that there is no sense in which Jesus came to bring peace. Therefore they began also to argue that there is no sense in which Jesus abolishing the law[34].

The words "I have come" do not necessarily prove Jesus' consciousness of his preexistence, for "coming" language can be used of prophets and indeed is used of the Baptist (11:18-19). But it can also speak of coming into the world (1Tim 1:15) and in the light of Matthew's prologue is probably meant to attest Jesus' divine origins. At very least it shows Jesus was sent on a mission[35]. According to S.R Driver Jesus' mission was not to abolish[36] {a term more frequently connected with the destruction of buildings (24:2; 26:61)} the law of Moses, which was eternally binding upon the hearts and conscience of men and if any of His disciples taught men to disobey any of his commandments would be placed in a inferior position in the coming kingdom, But by these words Matthew forms a new "inclusio" (5:17-7:12), which marks out the body of the sermon and shows that Jesus is taking pains to relate his teaching and place in the history of redemption to the OT Scriptures. For that is what "Law or the Prophets" here means: the Scriptures. The disjunctive "or" makes it clear that neither is to be abolished. The Jews of Jesus' day could refer to the Scriptures as "the Law and the Prophets" (7:12; 11:13; 22:40; Luke 16:16; John 1:45; Acts 13:15; 28:23; Rom 3:21); "the Law... the Prophets, and the Psalms" (Luke 24:44); or just "Law" (5:18; John 10:34; 12:34; 15:25; 1Cor 14:21); the divisions were not yet stereotyped. Thus even if "or the Prophets" is redactional, the referent does not change when only law is mentioned in v. 18, but it may be a small hint that the law, too, has a prophetic function (11:13) G.S Slogan says that it is certainly illegal to see in "Law and Prophets” to some vague reference to the will of God[37][1] N.J. McEleney find the verb so difficult in a context as the essence of the problem lies in the verb "to fulfill" (pleroo)[38], but Jewish scholars, take the verb to reflect the Aramaic verb qum ("establish," "validate," or "confirm" the law).Therefore it good to say that, Jesus did not come to abolish the law but to confirm it and establish it[39].
There are several objections.

1. The focus of Matthew 5 is the relation between the OT and Jesus' teaching, not his actions. So any interpretation that says Jesus fulfills the law by doing it misses the point[40].
2. If it is argued that Jesus confirms the law, even its jot and tittle, by both his life and his teaching some understood as setting out his own Halakah (rules of conduct) within the framework of the law And one marvels that the early church, as the other NT documents testify, misunderstood Jesus so badly on this point; and even the first Gospel, as we shall see, is rendered inconsistent[41].
3. The LXX never uses pleroo ("fulfill") to render qum or cognates (which prefer histanai or bebaioun ["establish" or "confirm"]). The verb pleroo renders male and means, "to fulfill." In OT usage this characteristically refers to the "filling up" of volume or time, meanings that also appear in the NT (e.g., Acts 24:27; Rom 15:19). But though the NT uses pleroo in a number of ways, we are primarily concerned with what is meant by "fulfilling" the Scriptures. And under this head are specific predictions, typological fulfillments, and even the entire eschatological hope epitomized in the OT by God's covenant with his people[42].

The lack of background for pleroo ("fulfill") as far as it applies to Scripture requires cautious instruction from the NT evidence. In a very few cases, notably James 2:23, the NT writers detect no self-evident prophetic force in the OT passage introduced. Rather, the OT text (in this case Gen 15:6) in some sense remains "empty" until Abraham's action "fulfills" it. But Genesis 15:6 does not predict the action. Most NT uses of pleroo in connection with Scripture, however, require some teleological force and even the indefinite uses presuppose a typology that in its broadest dimensions is teleological, even if not in every detail. In any case the interchange of male ("fulfill") and qum ("establish") in the Targumim is not of sufficient importance to overturn the LXX evidence, not least owing to problems of dating the Targumim[43].

Other views are not much more convincing. Many argue that Jesus is here referring only to moral law, as he confirms it: the civil and ceremonial law are indeed abolished Although this tripartite distinction is old, its use as a basis for explaining the relationship between the testaments is not demonstrably derived from the NT and probably does not antedate Aquinas Others understand the verb pleroo to mean that Jesus "fills up" the law by providing its full, intended meaning and understood in terms of the double command to love. But this, however, requires an extraordinary meaning for pleroo, ignores the "jot and tittle" of v. 18, and misinterprets 22:34-40[44].

Therefore the best interpretation of these difficult verses says that Jesus fulfills the Law and the Prophets in that they point to him, and he is their fulfillment. And therefore the antithesis is not between "abolish" and "keep" but between "abolish" and "fulfill.” To say then for Matthew it is not the question of Jesus' relation to the law that is in doubt, but rather its relation to him[45]. Therefore one can give pleroo ("fulfill") exactly the same meaning as in the formula quotations, as in the prologue (Matt 1-2) have already laid great stress on the prophetic nature of the OT and the way it points to Jesus[46].

V 18. ajmh;n ga;r levgw uJmi`n, “Truly I say to you.” As an introductory formula (“amen” is the transliteration of the Hebrew ÷mea;). The word, “amen”, meaning “verily” or “truly,” i.e., something to be relied upon, as these words stress the gravity of what follows. This prefatory usage of “amen” is found neither in the OT nor in the rabbinic literature, where the word occurs consistently as a response to a preceding statement. ajmhvn occurs no less that thirty-one times in Matthew, far more than in any other of the Gospels (the Fourth Gospel uses the double ajmhvn, ajmhvn, which never occurs in Matthew)[47].

"I tell you the truth,” signals that the statement to follow is of the utmost importance and in Greek it is connected to the preceding verse by an explanatory "for" (gar) This verse 18 further explains and confirms the truth of v. 17. The "jot" (KJV) has become "the smallest letter" (NIV) is almost certainly correct, for it refers to the letter y (yod), the smallest letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The "tittle" (keraia) has been variously interpreted: it is the Hebrew letter v (waw) or the small stroke that distinguishes several pairs of Hebrew letters, and to say in any event Jesus here upholds the authority of the OT Scriptures right down to the "least stroke of a pen."[48].

To say vv. 17-18 not only wrestles theoretically with OT authority but with the nature extent, and duration of its validity and continuity. The nature of these has been set forth in v. 17. Especially the reference to "jot and tittle" establishes its extent not only to reduce the reference to moral law, or the law as a whole or in its parts, or to God's will in some general sense. But "Law" almost certainly refers to the entire OT Scriptures, and not just the Pentateuch or moral law[49].

The duration of the OT's authority is seen in the two "until" clauses i.e. the first is "until heaven and earth disappear"--simply means "until the end of the age”, or to say, “ as long as the present world order persists.” and the second is "until everything is accomplished", which is more difficult. Some take it to be equivalent to the first, which is more delicate than that. Here the word, “panta” ("all things" or "everything") also has no forerunner. According to some scholars, the word cannot very easily refers to all the demands of the law that must be "accomplished," because (1) the word "law" almost certainly refers here to all Scripture and not just its commands, but even if that were not so, v. 17 has shown that even imperatival law is prophetic (2) the word, “genatai” ("is accomplished") must here be rendered "happen," or "come to pass" as the accomplished in any sense cannot mean obeying the law[50].

Hence the word panta ("everything") is best understood to refer to everything in the law considered under the law's prophetic function, i.e. to say, until all these things have taken place as prophesied. This is not simply pointing to the Cross, nor simply to the end of the age and not even with 24:34-35 (judgment day) as is not that close. But according to verse 18d it simply means the entire divine purpose prophesied in Scripture must take place; not one jot or tittle will fail of its fulfillment and a similar point is found in 11:13. Thus the first "until" clause focuses strictly on the duration of OT authority but the second returns to considering its nature; it reveals God's redemptive purposes and points to their fulfillment, their "accomplishment," in Jesus and the eschatological kingdom he is now introducing and will one day consummate[51].

V 19. The key problem of this verse hinges on the meaning of the phrase “tw`n ejntolw`n touvtwn tw`n ejlacivstwn”, “the least of these commandments.” A number of scholars have concluded that the phrase refers to the teaching of Jesus especially given in vv 21–48. But in keeping with the emphasis of the preceding verses, it is more naturally taken as a reference to the Mosaic law, and the equivalent of the “jot and tittle” of v 18. What is in view is not the least in importance but the easiest to fulfill. If the commandments of the OT are in view here, we must regard this statement as hyperbolic. As in the preceding verse, a literal understanding is not consistent with Jesus’ own treatment of the law, or indeed with the emphasis in v 20. What is being emphasized in this way are not the minutiae of the law that tended to captivate the Pharisees but simply a full faithfulness to the meaning of the law as it is expounded by Jesus. Thus, the phrase “the least of these commandments” refers to the final and full meaning of the law, but taken up and interpreted by Jesus. For example in the material that begins in v 21 i.e. the description of the “great commandment” in 22:36–40 and Jesus’ ability to find the heart of the law in the double love commandment. Thus, the language of this verse, like that of the preceding verse, is familiar to the Jews, and especially to the Pharisees (a “sentence of holy law,” in which human action is followed by divine action). Now, however, it has new connotations, given the larger context in which it is uttered—the fulfillment brought by Jesus. These new connotations and a fuller picture of Jesus’ intention concerning the Mosaic Law will emerge as we progress through the Gospel[52].

The addition of the word didavxh/, “teach,” in both halves of the verse stresses the responsibility of the disciples, not simply to observe the law as interpreted by Jesus but also to teach it faithfully[53]. Teaching receives great emphasis in the Gospel of Matthew, and the evangelist obviously regarded it as of the highest importance for his church (Matt. 28:20)[54].

The ranking of persons as ejlavcisto", “least,” or mevga", “great,” in the kingdom of heaven is in keeping with the Jewish and rabbinic perspective and therefore it is directly related to the idea of rewards as a motivation for correct conduct (cf. 5:12 and 18:4). The “least” has presumably been essentially faithful to the law, though not having reached or taught the ideal championed by Jesus. Matthew could well have in mind more liberal Jewish Christians or especially gentile Christians who tolerated more carelessness regarding the law than he wished to promote among his particular Jewish-Christian congregation[55]. MacArthur says that the “least” refers to those excluded from the kingdom. But the assumption is that although they were guilty of the smallest commandments, they had kept the law for the most part and to say their reward will be proportionately less[56].

V 20. Again, as in v 18, the formulaic levgw ga;r uJmi`n, “I say to you,” stresses the great importance of the words that follow. This verse points to the essence of the matter and provides a clarification of the meaning of v 18, as well as a confirmation of our interpretation of the pericope. The dikaiosuvnh, “righteousness,” in view must exceed that of the scribes and Pharisees (plei`on, “more,” provides emphasis when added to perisseuvsh/, “abound”). But it is clear, especially from what follows in the sermon, that despite the language used this is not to be understood quantitatively and the righteousness that Jesus’ use of this word dikaiosuvnh, means, “righteousness”, which has a special significance especially in the Gospels, does not come through a greater preoccupation with the minutiae of the law that outdoes even the grammatei`", “scribes,” who were the professional scholars of the law, who spent much of their time in detailed study of its minutiae and the Pharisees who attempted to fulfill the requirements of the Torah through an elaborate oral tradition that was meant to illuminate its demands. Therefore Jesus expects a new and a higher kind of righteousness that rests upon the presence of the eschatological kingdom and finds its definition and content in his definitive and authoritative exposition of the law[57], and this is depicted clearly by William Hendricksen who brings out two kind of righteousness one of the scribes and the Pharisees, who fail to satisfy the heart (as they were formal, external and shallow), and the other of Jesus, who satisfies the heart, (as he was genuine, intensely deeply rooted and complete), secondly the scribes and Pharisees failed to satisfy the minds (theirs were based on reasoning that is deceptive, misleading and merely clever and proceeds from a mind that is not at rest), whereas Jesus satisfies the minds, (in line with reasoning that is honest, reliable and sound, and proceeds from a mind that has found, or in the process of finding rest), thirdly the scribes and the Pharisees are self-made and they were self-righteous and that commended buy Jesus is God-given, fourthly the scribes and Pharisees glorify self which is ostentatious and proud, whereas Jesus glorifies God, he is unpretentious and humble[58]. Thus Jesus clearly calls his disciples to a way of righteousness, but it is a new way that rests upon the true meaning of the Torah now delivered by the Messiah. To follow that teaching is to follow the path that leads to perfection (5:48)[59].

But by considering the larger context of the verse i.e. the grace of the beatitudes, it forbids us to conclude that entrance into the kingdom depends, in a cause-effect relationship or upon personal moral attainments. Though the verse is addressed in such a way it must be remembered that entrance into the kingdom is God’s gift; and to belong to the kingdom means to follow Jesus’ teaching[60]. MacArthur clearly says that, Scripture teaches repeatedly that sinners are capable of nothing but a flawed and imperfect righteousness (e.g., Is. 64:6). Therefore the only righteousness by which sinners may be justified is the perfect righteousness of God that is imputed to those who believe (Gen. 15:6; Rom. 4:5)[61].

SUMMARY

Jesus in His description about the proper function of His disciples, he made use of two sublime illustrations namely the salt and light, therefore in verse 13 “if the salt loses its flavor, how shall it be seasoned”, Salt is both a preservative and a flavor enhancer. No doubt its use as a preservative is what Jesus had mostly in view here. Pure salt cannot lose its flavor or effectiveness, but the salt that is common in the Dead Sea area is contaminated with gypsum and other minerals and may have a flat taste or be ineffective as a preservative. Such mineral salts were useful for little more than keeping footpaths free of vegetation. In verse 16 from the words, “light so shine” portrays a godly life that gives convincing testimony of the saving power of God, which ultimately will brings Him glory. (1 Pet. 2:12). And, in verse 17, Jesus clearly says that, “he did not came to destroy the Law or the Prophets”. Therefore one cannot think that Jesus’ teaching in the verses that follow was meant to alter, abrogate, or replace the moral content of the OT law. He was neither giving a new law nor modifying the old, but rather explaining the true significance of the moral content of Moses’ law and the rest of the OT. “The Law and the Prophets” speaks of the entirety of the OT Scriptures, not the rabbinical interpretations of them. This speaks of fulfillment in the same sense that prophecy is fulfilled. Christ was indicating that He is the fulfillment of the law in all its aspects. He fulfilled the moral law by keeping it perfectly, the ceremonial law by being the embodiment of everything the law’s types and symbols pointed to and also the judicial law by personifying God’s perfect justice (cf. 12:18, 20). We see that verse 18 begins by, “till heaven and earth pass away … till all is fulfilled”, which explains that Christ was emphasizing both the inspiration and the enduring authority of all Scripture. He was specifically affirming the utter inerrancy and absolute authority of the OT as the Word of God, even down to the least jot and tittle. This suggests that the NT should not be seen as supplanting and abrogating the OT, but as fulfilling and explicating it. For example, all the ceremonial requirements of the Mosaic Law were fulfilled in Christ and are no longer to be observed by Christians (Col. 2:16, 17). Yet not one jot or tittle is thereby erased; the underlying truths of those Scriptures remain, and in fact the mysteries behind them are now revealed in the brighter light of the Gospel. Here from the phrase, “One jot or one tittle”, “jot” refers to the smallest Heb (yodh), and “tittle”, which is a tiny extension on a Heb. Letter. Thereby Jesus upholds the authority of the OT Scriptures right down to the "least stroke of a pen." In verse 19 “shall be called least … shall be called great” Matthew could well have in mind more liberal Jewish Christians or especially gentile Christians who tolerated more carelessness regarding the law than he wished to promote among his particular Jewish-Christian congregation, and some scholars believe that the “least” refers to those excluded from the kingdom. But the assumption of the most is that, although they were guilty of the smallest commandments, they had kept the law for the most part and to say their reward will be proportionately less.

Finally, in verse 20, “unless your righteousness exceeds the righteousness of the scribes and Pharisees”. Here Jesus was calling His disciples to a deeper, more radical holiness than that of the Pharisees. As Pharisaism had a tendency to soften the law’s demands by focusing only on external obedience. Whereas, Jesus unpacks the full moral significance of the law, and shows that the righteousness the law calls for actually involves an internal conformity to the spirit of the law, rather than mere external compliance to the letter. “Will by no means enter the kingdom of heaven”. On the other hand, this sets up an impossible barrier to works-salvation. Scripture teaches repeatedly that sinners are capable of nothing but a flawed and imperfect righteousness (e.g., Is. 64:6). Therefore the only righteousness by which sinners may be justified is the perfect righteousness of God that is imputed to those who believe (Gen. 15:6; Rom. 4:5).

APPLICATION

We see that Jesus use of two metaphors has a greater meaning and should well keep ringing in the ears of the believers. Since believers are called to be the salt and light of this world and not of heaven, therefore as salt has the capacity and power to preserve, to give flavor, similarly true believers have a greater responsibility over this world from immorality and corruption, they are further called to cleanse and penetrate into this world to create a godly atmosphere, and a life that gives a sweet smelling aroma. The word salt less can further refer to a backslider who loses his flavor and testimony in this world. As light the believers are called to undergo a radical transformation, to become more like Christ and thereby to reflect more of Him (Jn 9:5), and as light is pure, clean, good, right, true, reveals, strips away darkness, protects, similarly believers have the massive task of illuminating their community, city, state and nation, which is totally depends upon the believer as the verse says, “ let your light shine….”, therefore there is every chance for a true believer to refuse to let his/her light, turn off, refuse to turn it, shade it, darken it, or to direct its beam to another direction and the purpose of letting the light shine is to let their good works for the use of this world and also to stir up men to glorify God.

Jesus next focuses His attention towards the relation of the old and the new righteousness. To say with clear distinction, before Christ the law was only rule, words, principles of behavior, demanded perfect righteousness, and also demanded punishment for its disobedience, as a whole it did not have spirit and life in it. But we see through Christ the law was fulfilled and completed, He came to explain the rule and the principle that underlines the law that brought out the full meaning, to inject both idea and the power to behave into a persons mind and life. He secured perfect righteousness by paying the maximum price through his ultimate love and frees all men from the penalty of the law. Thereby he became the representative Man for all men. Therefore the believers are not to be strict religious or legalist, as they have the full liberty in Christ, which makes them to serve God with a positive attitude.
[1] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary Volume 33A, Matthew 1–13 (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993) 97.
[2] ibid, 98.
[3] ibid.,
[4] ibid.,
[5] ibid.,
[6] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary Volume 33A, Matthew 1–13 (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993), 103.
[7] ibid, 104.
[8] ibid, 104.
[9] William Hendricksen, New Testament Commentary “Matthew”, (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1973), 282.
[10] S.R Driver, D.D, The International Critical Commentary, (Great Britain: Morrison and Gibb LTD, 1965), 43.
[11] Herschel H. Hobbs, An Exposition of The Gospel of Matthew, (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1965), 62.
[12] Frank E. Gaebelein, The Expositors Bible Commentary, Vol-8, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984), 138-39.
[13] James Burton Coffman, Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, (Texas: Firm Foundation Publishing House, 1983), 56.
[14] John Mac Arthur, The Mac Arthur New Testament Commentary, Matthew 1-7, (USA: BMH Books, 1985), 241.
[15] James Burton Coffman, Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, (Texas: Firm Foundation Publishing House, 1983), 56.
[16] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary Volume 33A, Matthew 1–13 (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993), 99.
[17] Frank E. Gaebelein, The Expositors Bible Commentary, Vol-8, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984), 138-39.
[18] William Hendricksen, New Testament Commentary “Matthew”, (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1973), 283- 84.
[19] S.R Driver, D.D, The International Critical Commentary, (Great Britain: Morrison and Gibb LTD, 1965), 44.
[20] Frank E. Gaebelein, The Expositors Bible Commentary, Vol-8, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984), 139.
[21] William Hendricksen, New Testament Commentary “Matthew”, (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1973), 284.
[22] John Mac Arthur, The Mac Arthur New Testament Commentary, Matthew 1-7, (USA: BMH Books, 1985), 244.
[23] William Hendricksen, New Testament Commentary “Matthew”, (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1973), 284- 85.
[24] John Mac Arthur, The Mac Arthur New Testament Commentary, Matthew 1-7, (USA: BMH Books, 1985), 244.
[25] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary Volume 33A, Matthew 1–13 (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993),100.
[26] Oliver B. Greene, The Gospel According to Matthew, (USA: The Gospel Hour, 1971), 337.
[27] James Burton Coffman, Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, (Texas: Firm Foundation Publishing House, 1983), 58.
[28] Stanley D. Toussaint, Behold The King: A Study Matthew, (Oregon: Multnomah Press, 1980), 98.
[29] James Burton Coffman, Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, (Texas: Firm Foundation Publishing House, 1983), 59.
[30] John Mac Arthur, The Mac Arthur New Testament Commentary, Matthew 1-7, (USA: BMH Books, 1985), 246.
[31] Alfred Plummer, An Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to St. Matthew, (Michigan: WM. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1953), 75.
[32] Stanley D. Toussaint, Behold The King: A Study Matthew, (Oregon: Multnomah Press, 1980), 99.
[33] R. Banks, "The Eschatological Role of Law," Pre- and Post-Christian Jewish Thought, (Exeter: Paternoster, 1982), 173-85.
[34] ibid.,
[35] R. Banks, "The Eschatological Role of Law," Pre- and Post-Christian Jewish Thought, (Exeter: Paternoster, 1982), 179.
[36] S.R Driver, D.D, The International Critical Commentary, (Great Britain: Morrison and Gibb LTD, 1965), 44.
[37] G.S. Sloyan, Is Christ the End of the Law? (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1978), 49.
[38] N.J. McEleney, The Principles of the Sermon on the Mount, (n.p: JBL Publications, 1979), 552.
[39] ibid.,
[40] Frank E. Gaebelein, The Expositors Bible Commentary, Vol-8, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984), 141.
[41] ibid, 142.
[42] Frank E. Gaebelein, The Expositors Bible Commentary, Vol-8, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984), 143.
[43] ibid.,
[44] ibid, 144- 145.
[45] Robert Banks, "Matthew's Understanding of the Law: Authenticity and Interpretation in Matthew 5:17-20, (n.p: JBL, 1974), 226.
[46] G.S. Sloyan, Is Christ the End of the Law? (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1978), 49.
[47] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary, volume 33A, Matthew, 1-13, (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993)
[48] Frank E. Gaebelein, The Expositors Bible Commentary, Vol-8, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984), 140.
[49] ibid, 141.
[50] ibid.,
[51] ibid.,
[52] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary, volume 33A, Matthew, 1-13, (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993), 108.
[53] Raymond E. Brown (E.D), The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, (Bangalore: Theological Publications in India, 2004), 641.
[54] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary, volume 33A, Matthew, 1-13, (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993), 108.
[55] ibid, 109.
[56] John F. Mac Arthur, Jr., The Mac Arthur Study Bible, (Dallas: Word Publishing, 1997), 65.
[57] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary, volume 33A, Matthew, 1-13, (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993)--
[58] William Hendricksen, New Testament Commentary “Matthew”, (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1973), 293- 94.
[59] ibid, 294.
[60] Donald A Hagner, Word Biblical Commentary, volume 33A, Matthew, 1-13, (Texas: Word Books Publisher, 1993)--
[61] John F. Mac Arthur, Jr., The Mac Arthur Study Bible, (Dallas: Word Publishing, 1997), 66.

MAGIC

2008-07-04T11:38:00.000-07:00

MAGIC

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1. ETYMOLOGY

2. MAGIC, RELIGION, PAGANISM, AND SPELLS

3. USES OF MAGIC
3.1 PROTECTION
3.2 ALTERING FATE
3.3 OTHER USES

4. KINDS OF MAGIC
4.1 OFFICIAL MAGIC
4.2 PRIVATE MAGIC

5. FORMS OF MAGIC
5.1 OBJECT MAGIC
5.2 CONTAGIOUS MAGIC
5.3 SYMPATHETIC MAGIC
5.4 GNOSIOLOGICAL MAGIC

6. HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPEAN MAGIC
6.1 MAGICAL BELIEFS IN WESTERN EUROPE
6.2 IN THE MIDDLE AGES
6.3 MAGIC IN THE RENAISSANCE
6.4 MAGIC AND ROMANTICISM

7. RELIGIOUS ATTITUDES TOWARDS MAGIC
7.1 MAGIC AND THE MAGI
7.2 IN ISLAM
7.3 IN HINDUISM
7.4 IN JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY

EVALUATION AND CHRISTIAN RESPONSE

BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The magic that most of us are acquainted with is sleight-of-hand magic, like picking a silver dollar out of the air or pulling a rabbit out of the hat is technically called as legerdemain magic. It is the art of illusion. Here the kind of magic we are going to deal is adherents to occult, which is technically called non-legerdemain magic. Therefore Aleister Crowley added a "k", "Magick", to distinguish it from the "Magician" who entertains an audience with tricks and illusions. This is the second kind of Occultism and the other two are fortune telling and spiritualism. Divination attempts to, foretell the future, whereas magic tries to change the present and the future of persons, and nature.

Sorcery or magic is the act of attempting to contact, manipulate or control people, spirits, animals, plants, the elements (earth, air, fire, water) through occult rituals, ceremonies, objects (amulets, talismans, charms, etc.) Though this magic may work, the power behind magic is demonic and those who practice magic are the enemies of righteousness. Though magic is not restricted to specific levels of culture of people, but it exists as a possibility in all culture and among all peoples, which may be in different ways.

1. ETYMOLOGY
The word magic on the basis of its appearance and manifestation the phenomenon of magic from the Greek word, “maria”, which primarily falls in the realm of human thought and action[1]. But the word magic ultimately derives from Magus, an Old Persian maguš who is one of the Zoroastrian astrologer priests of the Medes. The word entered in the English language only in the late 14th century from Old French magique[2].

2. MAGIC, RELIGION, PAGANISM, AND SPELLS

The theoretical relationship between religion and magic is similar to the relationship between religion and paganism. Here religion refers to a system of established beliefs, and magic and pagan are labels used by people within that system to describe beliefs and practices that conflict with or are outside of that system. But from the point of view of adherents of any established religion, the terms magic and wizardry connote beliefs, which are held to be false beliefs or heresy[3].

To say originally the term magic was referring to the older Zoroastrian Magi (i.e. sages, priests), but later it took a negative term, and among the followers of the Israelite religion and was recorded into Western history with its denigrating meaning. All descendants of the younger Abrahamic faith and its traditional culture of belief inherited this use of the term. In ancient times, practitioners of other religions were accused of practicing magic, even the adherents of Christianity and Islam, particularly when they were still having budding faiths[4].

In the Middle Ages, what we now call "the sciences" began to develop, partially through alchemy. Alchemy attempted to codify specific methodology for the mechanical achievement of tasks which most considered to be important, such as the healing of illnesses and the making of wealth. Whereas religion advocated a faith-based deference to matters of spirit, alchemy played a significant role in developing human curiosity about the natural world into a systemic structure of beliefs and practices. It is from alchemy that our modern concept of wizardry and magic come from; as a kind of melding of spirituality and methodical and professional investigation into the mysterious or arcane[5].

The basic instrument of magical practices is the spell, a spoken or written ritualistic formula that might be used in coincidence with a particular set of ingredients. If a spell is properly executed and fails to work, then the spell is likely a fraud. However, in most instances, the failure of a spell to bring about the desired effect can be attributed to the failure of the person executing the spell to follow the magic formula exactly[6].

3. USES OF MAGIC

The people who used magic sought self-serving aims. There are not extant examples of people using magic to accomplish the will of the deity. Rather, magic was used precisely to influence the will of the deity or spirit[7].

3.1 PROTECTION

One of the primary uses of magic in everyday life was for protection. In a world thought to be populated by evil spirits on bringing harm in every conceivable way, people sought supernatural protection. This was perhaps the chief use of the magical amulets, which frequently has the inscription, “protect me”. Many recipes for construction these kinds of amulets appear in the magical papyri[8].

3.2 ALTERING FATE

In Paul’s days many in the Mediterranean world were convicted that the course of their lives was directly affected by the alignment of the stars in the heaven at their time of birth. This reflected the principle of cosmic sympathy and represented the basic for astrology. In the worldview of masses, however the star either embodied or represented personal power. Thus the names of the deities were given to the sun, moon, planets and stars. Magical practioners believed that influencing these astral deities through the appropriate magical formula could alter a foul fate. And also through the magical means, a prominent deity could be invoked to thwart the grip of fate[9].

3.3 OTHER USES

Magic was also used for less honorable purposes. Spirits could be invoked to compel the physical attraction of another person, especially to gain favor and to influence the people, to heal various kinds of illness, to gain appearance from a deity who could reveal special knowledge. There was also a malevolent kind of magic, represented especially by the curse tablets. This form of magic sought to inflict pain and harm on opponents and enemies[10].

4. KINDS OF MAGIC

Magic is not only to produce tangible results through automatically effective rites, but also to order and determine every last detail in the life of the individual.

4.1 OFFICIAL MAGIC

In so far as it is concerned with things that affect either the community as a whole or only the individual, a distinction can be made within official and private magic. Official magic is present and in this case the boundaries between religion and magic are quite fluid, especially when public affairs re conducted in accordance with a magically effective ritual. e.g. in the region of South Africa it is done to yield better crops. Such ceremonies are conducted by the community and also by an official priesthood or a professional magician. Spirits or dreams can call the latter to his office without shamanism being identical with magic. The one qualified to serve in this capacity is usually trained according to the rules, so that he can carry out his function publicly. Institutions are found where certain callings have a special significance for the community or where the community has a primary religious organization. It is natural in the case of sacred kingship. This king or chief is endowed with power and is responsible for the heal for the woe of his subjects. He or persons appointed by him fulfills this responsibility in the community by magically effective practices and rites. It is also more or less to the public concern[11].

4.2 PRIVATE MAGIC

This kind of magic is employed in a secret manner by individual magicians or groups either to construct or to destroy others (with craft). They are called as both white and black magic. Anyone can practice private magic, since however, secret knowledge is assumed, and special traditions arise in connection with it and also often Para-psychological factors may also play a role in it[12].

5. FORMS OF MAGIC

5.1 OBJECT MAGIC

This is based on the idea that the part serves a whole and operates of itself and immediately by means of power- laden objects (Eg. Human bones, hair, nails, bones, tools, fetishes, etc). If a man possesses anything at all belonging to another then it is object magic. For example, in Australia even a footprint suffices and has the other in his power and this is employed especially in Bulozi[13].

5.2 CONTAGIOUS MAGIC

Magical effect is attained by the louding of power-laden objects. The immediate command over the power itself gives way to an indirect mastery. Magic objects can bestones, animals, plants, etc. Mythical ideas are often present in the background, and these create a magical interest respecting individual objects. Such transfer of power can also take place from man to man, an idea that is not without importance for the phenomena of cannibalism. As distinguished from object magic, contagious magic is closer to symbolism. Thus the power of the lion is concealed in the lion’s tooth worn as an amulet, or the strength of bast is concealed in rings made of this material in (papua). The power, which is the last analysis, possesses certain independence and unavailability of its own, is not only received, but by means of contact for the purpose, can also be employed. For e.g. to carry offering placed upon a stone to one’s ancestors[14]. In short, it involves the use of physical ingredients, which were once in contact with the object or objects one hopes to influence with a spell[15].

5.3 SYMPATHETIC MAGIC

Magical casual sequence is thought of here in its parallel relations to the sympathetic capacity of man. When once the sympathetic and analogue is established, the desired effect is attained or the conditio sinequa non is fulfilled, without which the effect cannot take place[16]. The analogue itself ranges from the picture like setting to the imageless, but sense fixed magic word of expression. To say when the hunter strikes the animal dawn in the sand, he effects the presumption of a successful hunt. Similarly there is a belief that the man can kill another by looking down on the water. Conversely one obtains the presence of the divine or the divinely when in the possession of a pertinent image or picture[17]. In short, it involves the use of physical objects, which resemble the object or objects one hopes to influence; the Voodoo dolls of "New Orleans Voodoo" are the best example for this[18].

5.4 GNOSIOLOGICAL MAGIC

In this kind of magic one no longer attains results primarily by the performance of object- related or of sympathetico- analogous actions. Rather it is in the intellectual sphere, in the knowledge of the magical constellations connected with the universe and of the actions harmonized with them, that he sees the sound and appropriate establishment of existence guaranteed. It is possible to speak under this head of negative, or passive, magic. Here belongs the setting of an action at the right time. (E.g. at the waxing and waning of the moon), and likewise this can help to obtain blessings from gods. Worship, which is religion in origin and religion cascetico-mystical is conducted under the influence of the riteship thereby imperceptibly into the magical, as they pile up prayers through repetition in the belief that this makes prayers themselves more efficacious[19].

6. HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPEAN MAGIC

6.1 MAGICAL BELIEFS IN WESTERN EUROPE

The belief system in various magical practices has waxed and waned in European and Western history, under pressure from either organized monotheistic religions or from skepticism about the reality of magic, and the ascendancy of scientism[20].

In the world of classical antiquity, much as in the present time, magic was thought to be somewhat exotic. Egypt, home of hermeticism, and Mesopotamia and Persia, original home of the Magi, were lands where expertise in magic was thought to be prevalent. In Egypt, a large number of magical papyri, in Greek, Coptic, and Demotic, have been recovered. These sources contain early instances of much of the magical lore that later became part of Western cultural expectations about the practice of magic, especially ceremonial magic. They contain early instances of: the usage of magic words to control and command the spirits; the usage of wands and other ritual tools; the usage of a magic circle to defend the magician against the spirits he is invoking or evoking; and also the use of mysterious symbols or sigils thought useful to appeal to or stir up spirits. For Example: The use of spirit mediums is also documented in these texts; many of the spells call for a child to be brought to the magic circle to act as a conduit for messages from the spirits. The time of the Emperor Julian of Rome, marked by a reaction against the influence of Christianity, saw a revival of magical practices associated with neo-Platonism under the guise of theurgy[21].

6.2 IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Medieval authors, under the control of the Church, confined their magic to compilations of wonderlore and collections of spells. Albertus Magnus was credited with a number of such compilations and this period also had Christianized varieties of magic. During the early period the cult of relics was not only the objects of veneration but also of supernatural power. To say miraculous tales were told of the power of relics of the saints to work miracles, not only to heal the sick, but for purposes like influencing the outcome of a battle. The relics had become amulets, and various churches strove to purchase scarce or valuable examples, hoping to become places of pilgrimage. Since the demand increased the economic project as usual gave rise to the tales of the miracle working of saints and this was later compiled into quite popular collections like the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine or the Dialogus miraculorum of Caesar of Heisterbach, etc[22].

There were other, officially illegal varieties of Christianized magic. The demonology and angelology contained in the earliest grimoires assume a life surrounded by Christian equipments and sacred rituals. The underlying theology in these works of Christian demonology encourages the magician to fortify himself with fasting, prayers, and sacraments, so that by using garbled versions of the holy names of God in foreign languages, he can use divine power to persuade demons into appearing and serving his usually lustful or avaricious magical goals. Not surprisingly, the church disapproved of these rites; nevertheless, they are Christianized, and assume a theology of mechanical sacramentalism[23].

6.3 MAGIC IN THE RENAISSANCE

In this period renaissance humanism saw revival in hermeticism and other Neo-Platonic varieties of ceremonial magic. The Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution, on the other hand, saw the rise of scientism, in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe assumed by astrology, the development of the germ theory of disease, which restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Therefore tensions roused by the Protestant Reformation led to an upswing in witch-hunting, especially in places like Germany, England, and Scotland; but ultimately, the new theology of Protestantism proved a worse foe to magic by undermining belief in the sort of ritualism that allowed religious rites to be re-purposed towards earthly, magical ends. Scientism, more than religion, proved to be magic's deadliest foe[24].

At the same time the ceremonial magic followed by the better educated were the everyday activities of folk practitioners of magic across Europe, typified by the cunning folk found in Great Britain. In their magical practices astrology, folklore, and distorted versions of Christian ritual magic worked alongside to meet the need of the customers[25].

6.4 MAGIC AND ROMANTICISM

The bridge of the magic and science was first attempted by Baron Carl Reichenbach's experiments along with his Odic. More recent periods of renewed interest in magic occurred around the end of the nineteenth century, where Symbolism and other offshoots of Romanticism cultivated a renewed interest in exotic spiritualities. European colonialism, which put Westerners in contact with India and Egypt, re-introduced exotic beliefs to Europeans at this time. Hindu and Egyptian mythology frequently feature in nineteenth century magical texts. The late 19th century spawned a large number of magical organizations, including the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society, and specifically magical variants on Freemasonry. The Golden Dawn represented perhaps the peak of this wave of magic, attracting cultural celebrities like William Butler Yeats, Algernon Blackwood, and Arthur Machen to its banner[26].

7. RELIGIOUS ATTITUDES TOWARDS MAGIC

7.1 MAGIC AND THE MAGI

Magical beliefs and practices are common in many cultures and religions. The word magic comes from the beliefs and practices of the Magi (singular, Magus), Persian priests and scholars, followers of Zoroaster, who were credited by the classical world with mastery of astrology and other mysterious arts[27].

7.2 IN ISLAM

Muslims, followers of the religion of Islam, believe in magic, but they forbid the practice of it. (Siher). Siher translates as sorcery or black magic. Muslims believe that two Angels taught sorcery to mankind in order to test their obedience to refrain from it and therefore it is considered an unforgivable sin. The two fallen angels are Harut and Marut and they teach that they are only a temptation. Therefore people learn that these angels cause division, injure, and harm others[28].

However, performing miracles in Islam is reserved for only a prophet nabi some schools of thought within Islam believe in a form of metaphysical training in which the seeker can obtain the power to perform miracle-like events called "keramat". This is however not regarded as magic but rather extrasensory power. During the golden age of Islam, there was an influx of Hermetic and Chaldean thought due to the translation of many texts into Arabic. Magic based on angels, properties of the 99-Names of Allah, verses from the Quran, and the power of the Arabic letters became accepted as an alternative to sorcery between the ninth and thirteenth centuries. One of the most famous books of this era was the Shamsu al-Ma'aref al-Kubra, by Ahmed al-Buni. This book was later banned by orthodox Muslims as heresy, but continues to be read and studied. This kind of magic was called, Ilm al-Hikmah (Knowledge of the Wise), Ilm Shem Yah (Study of the Divine Name), and Rouhaniat (Spirituality), instead of Siher (Sorcery)[29].

During the middle ages many Muslims believed in these mysterious sciences such as Alchemy and Astrology, where a student under the proper master could obtain this knowledge. Whereas the Persian magi were believed to use Agate stones to influence the weather, some Muslims believe in wearing the Agate ring for protection and longevity, among other benefits. Stones of the sort are thought to influence mood. And whereas weavers of flying carpets are written to have been persecuted in medieval and even ability to communicate with genies was also permitted[30].

7.3 IN HINDUISM

It has been long accepted by many that Hindu India has been the land of magic, both supernatural and otherwise. Hinduism is one of the few religions that have sacred texts like the Vedas that talks about both white and black magic. The Atharva Veda is a Veda that deals with mantra that can be used for both good and bad. The word mantrik in India literally means magician since the mantrik usually knows mantras, spells and curses, which can be used for or against forms of magic. To say many ascetics after long periods of penance and contemplation are supposed to attain a state where they attain mystical powers. However many choose not to use them and instead transcend beyond physical powers into the realm of spirituality. And many impossible wonders and miracles that are impossible are said to have performed by Siddhars[31].

7.4 IN JUDAISM AND CHRISTIANITY

Generally Judaism, Christianity and Islam formally characterize magic as forbidden witchcraft, and have often prosecuted practitioners of it with varying degrees of severity. The traditional theologies of these religions have held that the apparent effects of magic are either delusional or the result of fallen angels manipulating nature on behalf of the sorcerer, hence witchcraft has often been seen as a type of pact with demonic beings[32].

But informally, Jewish and Christian mystics have practiced varying forms of magic for hundreds of years. Jewish folk stories often feature wonder-working rabbis and sages as protagonists, whose powers more or less resemble magic[33].

EVALUATION AND CHRISTIAN RESPONSE

The question which Christians face today is, Is there anything wrong with being involved in occult practices? And to this the Bible takes a clear position on this subject and strongly denounces these practices. To say this negation of magic has its roots even from the Old Testament itself (for e.g., Deut 18: 9-14, Ex 22: 18), The Bible says that anyone who does these things is detestable to the Lord (Deuteronomy 18:10-12; 2 Kings 21:6; Micah 5:12; Isaiah 47:12; Ezekiel 13:18, 20; Acts 8:11-24; Leviticus 20:27; Exodus 7:11) The Bible strongly warns people not to consult mediums and spiritists for the truth, but to inquire of God (Isaiah 8:19). Bible provides examples showing the folly and failures of those who claimed the ability to predict the future based on their own powers or those of spirits (Daniel 2:27, etc.).

Even the New Testament speaks of four magicians like Simon (Acts 8:19-24), Bar-Jesus or Elymas (Acts 13:4-12), Jannes and Jambres (2 Timothy 3:8) and right from the beginning of Christianity, the people who were of Christian faith considered sorcery and divination as devices opposed to religion. Church father St. Augustine rejected all the experiments of magic arts and to say even the scripture forbids the use of sorcery and divination, as it is contradictory to Christian piety. In Revelation 21:8, God warns of the ultimate punishment and this place will be in the fiery lake of burning sulfur… since these practices are anti-God and are in rebellion against Him.

As the common saying goes, “ To, not to think red, do not try not to think of red, but rather think of green to avoid red”. To say the formulae is, in order to avoid the occultism for the already victims it is better to inject them Christian values, ethics and also the power of the Almighty and also to keep them in our daily prayers, so that, they may have God’s word in the place of spiritism, the prophesies of Bible in the place of clairvoyance, the divine promises in the place of divination, the testing of the spirits in the place of divination, the prayer of faith in the place of magic, healing by faith in the place of conjuration, the out pouring of the Holy Spirit in the place of psycho kinesis, a devoted surrender to Christ in the place of blood pacts and last but not the least the assurance of God’s protection in the place of superstition. The role of a minister of God is to teach the victims and the believers to, “Test the Spirits and to see whether they are of God” and to see that they are not knowing and thinking more about it and at the same time they are not totally negligent of it. They should be taught that magic stands in the front line in opposition to God’s kingdom and the people who directly or indirectly involve in magic stands under judgment. And in the whole the victims should understand that liberation from the sphere of the dominion of Satan is not only the goal and the task of the future, but rather an event already completed in the redemptive act of Christ. Since Christ came to destroy the bulwarks of the darkness (1 John 3,8) and therefore the victory is already won and the liberation from subjection to the kingdom of satan requires only a regressus and perfectum, a return to the finished work. Therefore the minister of God’s experience of liberation from occult subjection is nothing other than the realization of this call and for this the minister of God should be spiritually equipped and should be rooted and grounded in the word of God.

The victims should clearly understand that God created us and therefore owns us. He has a right to set the rules for our lives. God’s Word indicates that these practices are part of Satan's strategy of evil tricks and deception, designed to lead us astray. Satan and his demons are real beings set on our destruction. Christians are warned to "put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wickedness in high places" (Ephesians 6:11-12). And therefore one should have the sensing of the spirit and need of redemption from these kinds of things should surely strive us to learn to diagnosis the things and lead a stretching hands to the right thing in the right time.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dowell, John Mc and Don Stewart, Understanding the Occult. California: Here’s Life Publishers, 1982.

Hawthorne, Gerald F. and Ralph P. Martin, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. England: Intervarsity Press, 1983.

Hutton, Ronald. The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford: ISBN Publishers, 2001.

Josh Mc Dowell and Don Stewart, Hand Book Of Today’s Religions.London: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983.

Koch, Kurt. Occult Bondage and Deliverance. Michigan: Kregel Publications, 1970.

Marthaler, Berald L. New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol-9.USA: Thomas Gale, 2003.

Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 on 15th October 2005 at 5 p.m.

Retrieved from http://www.new-life.net/magic.htm on 12th October 2005 at 2 p.m.

Retrieved fromhttp://encyclopedia.laborlawtalk.com/Magic_(paranormal) on 11th October 2005 at 2 p.m.

Retrieved fromhttp://www.answers.com/topic/magic on 12th October 2005 at 2 p.m.

Retrieved fromhttp://www.christianfantasy.net/sdg1.html on 12th October 2005 at 2 p.m.

[1] Berald L. Marthaler, New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol-9, (USA: Thomas Gale, 2003), 36.
[2] John Mc Dowell and Don Stewart, Understanding the Occult, (California: Here’s Life Publishers, 1982), 89.
[3] Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 on 15th October 2005 at 5 p.m.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.
[6] John Mc Dowell and Don Stewart, Understanding the Occult, (California: Here’s Life Publishers, 1982), 92.
[7] Berald L. Marthaler, New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol-9, (USA: Thomas Gale, 2003), 37.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid
[10] Berald L. Marthaler, New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol-9, (USA: Thomas Gale, 2003), 38.
[11] Kurt Koch, Occult Bondage and Deliverance, (Michigan: Kregel Publications, 1970), 20.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Gerald F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, (England: Intervarsity Press, 1983), 581.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Ibid.
[16] Josh Mc Dowell and Don Stewart, Hand Book Of Today’s Religions, (London: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983), 204.
[17] Berald L. Barther, New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol- 9, (USA: Thomas Gale, 2003), 38.
[18] John Mc Dowell and Don Stewart, Understanding the Occult, (California: Here’s Life Publishers, 1982), 92.
[19] Gerald F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, (England: Intervarsity Press, 1983), 582.
[20] Hutton, Ronald, The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, (Oxford: ISBN Publishers, 2001), 74.
[21] Ibid, 75.
[22] Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 on 15th October 2005 at 5 p.m.
[23] Ronald Hutton, The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft, (Oxford: ISBN Publishers, 2001), 76.
[24] Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_%28paranormal%29 on 15th October 2005 at 5 p.m.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Retrieved fromhttp://encyclopedia.laborlawtalk.com/Magic_(paranormal) on 11th October 2005 at 2 p.m.
[28] Retrieved fromhttp://www.answers.com/topic/magic on 12th October 2005 at 2 p.m.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Retrieved fromhttp://www.christianfantasy.net/sdg1.html on 12th October 2005 at 2 p.m.
[32] Retrieved from http://www.new-life.net/magic.htm on 12th October 2005 at 2 p.m.

[33] Retrieved from http://www.new-life.net/magic.htm on 12th October 2005 at 2 p.m.

Thomas Aquinas philosophy

2008-07-04T11:23:00.000-07:00

Life and Works of St Thomas Aquinas

Saint Thomas Aquinas was a 13th century Dominican Friar, philosopher and theologian. Named a Doctor of the Church and given the title "Angelic Doctor," he is the patron of Catholic universities, colleges and schools. Renowned for his proofs for the existence of God, Aquinas believed that both faith and reason discover truth; a conflict between them is impossible since they both originate in God. He was instrumental, therefore, in the assimilation of the works of Aristotle into the intellectual life of Western Christendom.

Saint Thomas was born in 1224 or 1225 to noble parents, being the youngest son of Landulf (descendent of the counts of Aquino) and Theodora, a noble woman of Naples. At the age of five, he was placed in the Monastary of Monte Cassino to be educated for a career in the Church. Because of the promise he showed in his studies, around the age of fourteen he was sent to the University of Naples to continue his education and excelled under his new masters. It was there that he was probably first exposed to the recently rediscovered natural and metaphysical works of Aristotle.

At about the age of nineteen, he joined the Dominican Order, the Order Friars Preachers. His noble family was not pleased with this choice, however, since the friars, with there the extreme poverty and itinerant lifestyle, were not held in very high esteem. When his mother set out for Naples in order to retrieve Brother Thomas from the clutches of the Dominicans, the friars sent him to Rome, but Thomas was captured by his brothers, soldiers in the Imperial Army. He was taken to a family castle and imprisoned for nearly two years as his family tried to dissuade him from carrying through his resolution to continue as a Dominican. His brothers even sent a prostitute into his cell, but Thomas drove her away with a burning brand he took from the fire. While in prison, he continued his study, and when finally released, he professed his vows in the Order of Friars Preachers. At the age of twenty, he was placed under the instruction of St. Albert the Great, first in Paris and later in Cologne. Because of his large figure and quiet nature, Thomas' fellows called him a dumb ox, but St. Albert declared that Thomas' bellows would resound throughout the world. In perfume, probably at the age of twenty-five, Thomas was ordained to the priesthood.

After a few years, Thomas was sent to Paris to teach his brethren and to earn a Doctorate in Theology from the University there. He became involved in a controversy, however, and was delayed in receiving his degree and occupying a place on the faculty. When a student was killed by the Paris guard, a dispute between the University and the city of Paris erupted. The University went on strike, but the Dominicans and Franciscans refused to join in. Consequently, St. Thomas and the Franciscan, St. Bonaventure, were refused their Doctorates in Theology. One of the Parisian professors, William of St.-Amour, even wrote a vicious attack against the friars, The Perils of the Last Times. Thomas responded by writing his own defense of the religious orders, Against Those Attacking the Worship of God and Religion. Finally, Pope Alexander IV and St. Louis IX of France resolved the dispute, and Thomas and Bonaventure received their degrees.

In the fifteen years from 1257-1273, St. Thomas was prolific in his writing, teaching and preaching. He is said to have been able to dictate several different treatises to various scribes at once. He held many academic debates at the University of Paris, far more than most other professors, and in his lifetime he wrote over 50 major works, from original philosophical works, to theological treatises, to commentaries on works of Aristotle and on Scripture. His monumental Summa Theology is a masterpiece of medieval scholasticism. He is also credited with religious poetry in praise of the Eucharist which is used by the Church for the Feast of The Body and Blood of Christ.

Philosophy and Theology

Thomas Aquinas (picture) does not accept the Averroist principle of the double truth. Philosophy and theology are distinct but not opposed, and what reason shows to be true is absolutely true in theology also. Moreover, Aquinas does not accept Augustinian illumination, the belief that the eternal truths are imparted to our soul by the Word of God. For Aquinas the intellect is able to reach concepts through abstraction. The proper object of the human intellect is this visible world, our intellect cannot penetrate the mysteries of faith. Nevertheless, the most important religious truths, such as the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, are both the object of reason and the object of faith.

Theory of Knowledge

Knowledge is obtained through two stages of operations, sensitive and intellective, which are intimately related to one another. The object of sensitive knowledge is the particular thing, while the object of the intellect is the "intelligible," which is arrived at from the particular by abstraction. The intellect has three operations: abstraction, judgment and reasoning.

Soul and body

The substantial ego, or human individual, is not a simple being, but one composed of a body and a soul. This leads us to the current definition of man: a 'rational animal' (definition by logical parts) or 'a compound of body and soul' (definition by real parts). Like the other living organisms plant or animal, unicellular or higher organism man is regarded as a compound made up of a body, which plays the part of 'matter' and of a soul, which acts as the 'substantial form.' If we recall what has been said in the previous part about matter and form, we shall understand the role of the soul and the body in man.

Conclusion

According to Thomas Aquinas, the existence of God is not a truth, which is immediately evident, but one requiring demonstration. We do not know Him in the manner in which we know, for example, the principle of contradiction or our own existence, but we have to view Him through the thick veil of the world of sense reality, which is between Him and us. Likewise, a reasoning process alone enables us to know some aspects, or attributes, of God's Infinity.

Wolfhart Pannenberg

2008-07-04T11:21:00.000-07:00

Wolfhart Pannenberg
Introduction
German theology, which has always enjoyed great influence on this side of the Atlantic, has been dominated in the 20th century by Barthian and existentialist approaches. But since the 1960s a quite different project, focusing attention again on the classical quest for ultimate truth in the midst of contemporary, post-Enlightenment culture, has been developing as well. This has come through the work of several theologians, the foremost of whom is Wolfhart Pannenberg. In the 1960’s Pannenberg’s name was linked to one of the theological fashions of the day, the “theology of hope.”
Pannenberg’s life
Wolfhart Pannenberg was born in 1928 in the city of Stettin (today part of Poland). Growing up during the Nazi era, he was pressed into military service during the final days of the Third Reich--an experience which helps account for his wariness of all ideological and political promises. His interest in religion developed after the war as the result of study and reflection during his university days, first at Berlin, then at Gottingen, Basel, and Heidelberg, where he received his doctorate in 1953, writing on the idea of predestination in the thought of Duns Scotus. In 1958 he was appointed professor of systematic theology at Wuppertal.
Pannenberg began his theological studies at the University of Berlin after World War II and also studied at the University of Gottingen and the University of Basel. He completed his doctoral dissertation at the University of Heidleberg. He studied under theologians Karl Barth and Edmund Schlink, among others. Pannenberg has drawn together religion and science through much of his life.
He has also contributed substantially to the philosophy of history and the philosophy of science. He has been called an “eschatological realist” and a great interdisciplinary thinker.
Formation as theologian
Pannenberg was able to re-establish the public platform of the discipline of theology in the broader cross-disciplinary conversation of our day. He was prepared to take on a project of this magnitude through a variety of personal and educational experiences in his youth. Wolfhart Pannenberg was born in 1928 in Setting, Germany (modern day Poland). Although baptized a Lutheran as an infant, during his childhood he had almost no contact with the church. However, during his youth he did have an intense religious experience, which he refers to as his “light experience.” Placed in the categories of his later theology, his religious experience would be classified as an un-thematic experience of God very similar to Rahner’s understanding of religious experience.[1]
A curious lad, Pannenberg sought to understand his experience through reading the great philosophers and religious thinkers. Moreover, one of his teachers proved to be an important influence in Pannenberg’s conversion to the Christian worldview. He encountered this literature teacher, who had been a member of the Confessing Church during the Third Reich, during his final years of high school. This instructor convinced him to take a long hard look at Christianity, a thoughtful period of Pannenberg’s life when he concluded that Christianity was tie best philosophy. This “intellectual conversion” launched him into a vocation as a Christian theologian.[2]
Pannenberg began his theological studies after the Second World War at the University of Berlin, studying and teaching throughout his life at some of the greatest institutions in Germany. He would continue his theological investigations at the Universities of Ghottingen and Basle. At the University of Heidelberg he completed his doctoral dissertation on the doctrine of predestination of the noted medieval scholastic theologian John Duns Scotus under the supervision of the Lutheran Barthian Edmund Schlink, and in 1955 completed his Habilitationsschrift with an analysis of the role of analogy in Western thought up to Thomas Aquinas.[3]
While Pannenberg was at Basle he studied under Karl Earth, the leading Protestant theologian of his day. Pannenberg appreciated Earth’s Word of God theology which was a post-Kantian renewal of the Reformation theologies of John Calvin and Martin Luther. However, even as a student, Pannenberg sensed that Barth’s stringent critique of natural theology was too radical. Pannenberg’s study of the Medievals made him more sympathetic to God’s general revelation through creation. He was able to work this idea out first in the field of history, through a neo-Hegelian philosophy of history, and later in his work in religion and science. Eventually he was able to draw these two threads together in his life work: a three volume systematic theology.[4]
Philosophy of Science
Pannenberg is clear that the natural sciences and theology are distinct disciplines, with their own understanding of how information is gained and assessed. Nevertheless, both relate to the same publicly observable reality, and they therefore have potentially complementary insights to bring. The area of the “laws of nature” is a case in point, in that Pannenberg believes that the provisional explanations for such laws offered by natural scientist have a purely provisional status, until they are placed on a firmer theoretical foundation by theological analysis. There is thus a clear case to be made for a creative and productive dialogue between the natural sciences and religion; indeed, had this taken place in the past, much confusion and tension could have avoided.
Philosophy of Theology: Systematic Theology
In the Spring of 1988 Pannenberg published the first volume of his Systematic Theology, comprising the prolegomena to dogmatics and the doctrine of God. The six chapters of volume one explore:
1. How truth is the foundation of systematic theology
2. How the concept of God relates to this truth (natural theology)
3. How the reality of God is understood in relation to other religions
4. How to understand revelation
5. The Trinity
6. The unity and attributes of God.
In this work we sec a mature Pannenberg who has been able to fulfill his programmatic reflections in Revelation as History. In 1991 and 1993 followed the second and third volumes on christology and the church.
The primary theme of his systematic theology is truth. In order to externally verify the truth claims of Christianity, a reflective framework must be established philosophically. For Pannenberg, neither repetition of biblical axioms nor an existential leap of faith go far enough to prove the truth of Christianity. Theological discourse about God requires a relationship to metaphysical reflection if its claim to truth is to be valid. (1990: 6). Metaphysics provides an ideational superstructure in which to assert and evaluate truth claims. These claims are necessary in establishing theological discourse, because in Christian theology everything depends on the reality of God (1991:5). For example, since Pannenberg believes in the truth of the biblical narratives he prefers to refer to them as history, instead of mere “stories” as has become fashionable among contemporary narrative theologians. By centering his project on the primacy and possibility of the norm of truth, Pannenberg stands against much of the anti-realist, subjectivist postmodernists like Richard Rorty.
Although Pannenberg is a realist, he is a realist of a particular stripe, namely an eschatological realist. He believes that there really is a capital T truth out there, but that we will not know it completely until consummation of the ages, the end of the eschaton. Since all any human knower including a theologian ever has is a provisional perception of truth, all theological statements are tentative, not fully revealing and in that sense hypothetical. For Pannenberg History in all of its totality, can only be understood when it is views from its endpoint. The consummation of the world through the second coming and judgement of Jesus Christ is the point which alone provides the perspective from which the historical process can be seen in its totality. The end of history is disclosed in advance in the history of Jesus Christ. The end of history, which has yet to take place, has been disclosed in advance of the event in the person and work of Christ.[5]
Theology of Pannenberg
Pannenberg’s systematic theology belongs in the great line of modern historicist-idealist systems, will instance only a selection of cases in point. According to Pannenberg, creation is a continuation of the event of divine self-alienation that is the life of the Trinity. The Incarnation is not finally conditioned by the contingency of sin, for what happens it the Incarnation is that the self-distinction of the eternal Son from the Father, which is the ontological principle of creation and its history, itself takes “historical form” and so achieves its full extension. Indeed, the Incarnation is “the self-realization of God in the world.” faith is the ecstasy of reason that does not undo reason because humanity is that one of the creatures in whom creation’s constituting ecstasy toward God becomes rational. Or alternatively, faith is the creature’s rational self-distinction from God that does not negate the creature because the Logos’ self-distinction from God is the creature’s ontological basis.[6]
Postmodernity is a purely negative phenomenon, so that such substance as our world may now have will continue to be that of the Enlightenment and later modernity’s effort to “overcome” the Enlightenment, it may happen that Pannenberg’s work is disregarded only long enough to be rediscovered. Pannenberg says he has no more plans for major writing and intends to cultivate roses and Chopin; perhaps he himself has the same question, and is leaving it to history.
It would not do to review a major work without scraping up some occasion of material disagreement. Again choose a matter that is general in Pannenberg’s work but becomes especially clear in the present volume.[7]
God
Pannenberg’s central significance lies in his understanding of the nature of theology and the nature of truth to which theology is related. He is attempting to change the course of contemporary theology, to provide a new direction in understanding in order to combat what he perceives to be a widespread privatisation of religion belief in general and of theology in particular.
Reminiscent of the classical view, Pannenberg sees theology as a public discipline related to the quest for universal truth. Truth is to be discerned through theological reflection and reconstruction. We must subject theological affirmations to the rigor of critical inquiry into the historical reality on which they are based. Theology must be evaluated on the basis of critical canons, as are the other sciences, which also seek to discover truth. Pannenberg believes that systematic theology should show the Christian faith’s truth for all humanity and as it illuminates all human knowledge. As a result, he entertains no difference between apologetics and dogmatic. Thus the unfolding of Christian doctrine in his Systematische Theologie is also a demonstration of his conception of God.[8]
In keeping with this understanding of truth and theology, he criticizes attempts to divide truth into autonomous spheres or to shield the truth in Christian tradition from rational inquiry. This forms the background to his lifelong battle against what he sees as modem Protestant theology’s subjectivism. By nature, truth cannot be merely subjective, Pannenberg asserts. Rather, it can only be personal, when it can be claimed at least in principle to be true for all. He boldly maintains that theological assertions are not grasped merely by some blind “decision of faith.” Faith is not a way of knowing in addition to reason, he declares, but is grounded in public, historical knowledge. For this reason, theology cannot be private and sheltered.
This aspect of Pannenberg’s understanding of truth is balanced by another. In contrast to the classical tradition, he declares that truth is not found in the unchanging essences lying behind the flow of time, but is essentially historical and ultimately eschatological. Until the eschaton, truth will remain provisional and truth claims contestable. Therefore, theology, like all human knowledge, is provisional. It simply cannot pack into formulas the truth of God. The future alone is the focal point of ultimate truth. As a result, all dogmatic statements are hypotheses to be tested for coherence with other knowledge. This, he claims, is in accordance with the Scriptures, which declare that only at the end of history is the deity of God unquestionably open to all-an event, however, that is anticipated in the present.
A second contribution Pannenberg has made to theology lies in the implications he draws from his well-known understanding of God as the power that determines everything. Pannenberg asserts that the deity of God is connected to God’s demonstration of lordship over creation. This means that the idea of God, if it corresponds to an actual reality must be able to illumine not only human existence, but also experience of the world as a whole.
The reality of God remains an open question in the contemporary world, and Pannenberg takes this into his theological understanding. Even the contestability of the divine reality must be grounded in God, he maintains. In perceiving theology as a science, Pannenberg suggests that if God is ultimate truth, then the God hypothesis -- the claim that God is the unity of all reality -- must include within itself the current debate over God’s existence. This also places God as the all-inclusive object of theology. Even though Christian dogmatics moves beyond the doctrine of God to include anthropology, creation, Christology, ecclesiology, etc., these belong to that one overarching topic, Pannenberg declares.[9]
Trinity
This understanding of God is evident in Pannenberg’s link between the immanent Trinity (God’s eternal essence) and the economic Trinity (God as active in salvation history). His link arises from a thesis foundational to his development of Christian doctrine: all systematic theology is but the explication of what is implicit in pod’s own self-disclosure. On the basis of revelation, Pannenberg claims that the Trinity must be treated first, before discussing the unity of God found in the divine attributes. In this way, the doctrine of God is grounded n the divine economy, and the understanding of the immanent Trinity flows from the economic Trinity. Crucial to Pannenberg’s development of this theme is, his concept of self-differentiation. All three Trinitarian persons are mutually dependent on the others, he asserts. Here he offers an alternative to the subordination of the Son and the Spirit to the Father, which he finds detrimental to traditional theology. He perceives this mutual dependency in the process of salvation history and believes full revelation of God’s unity will come with the eschatological completion of the divine plan for the world.[10]
Anthropology
Pannenberg also makes a significant contribution to anthropology. He proposes that humanity is in a certain sense naturally religious, for the structure of the individual human person and of corporate human life is pervaded by religion. This is consistent with his view that one can expect to find the mark of the Creator in creation. As created by God, human destiny is to exist in the image of God, a destiny visible in human “openness to the world.” This thesis is widely known. Less familiar are two further aspects developed in his systematic theology: his understanding of the intuition of the infinite and his view of religion as the struggle for truth.
Pannenberg’s understanding of humanity’s basic religious nature builds from Schleiermacher’s early thought and from a reinterpretation of Descartes’s concept of the infinite. In the background, however, are medieval discussions about what is first known, albeit dimly, to the human mind. Two contemporary concepts illuminate this question. The first is “exocentricism” as employed by 20th century philosophical anthropology -- one must ground one’s identity outside oneself -- but for which Pannenberg finds a foundation in Luther’s understanding of faith. The other is Erik Erikson’s idea of “basic trust.”[11]
Religion
Religious awareness, Pannenberg explains, arises out of the rudimentary consciousness of the difference between “I” and “world” found already in the act of trust, which is then augmented by one’s presence in a family. As one experiences finitude and temporality in everyday life, an intuition of the infinite develops.
To this notion Pannenberg adds an innovative thesis. Intuition of the infinite does not itself constitute knowledge of God. Rather, gaining explicit knowledge from religious traditions allows one to reflect on the earlier immediate experience and to conclude that therein lay an “unthematized knowledge” of God. In other words, one can conclude that this basic intuition of the infinite relates to the theme of God only by reflecting on the process of religious history.
In this way Pannenberg connects this basic religious phenomenon to the experience of God found in religions, which become aware of the Godhead’s activity and essence through the works of creation. As a result Pannenberg views the rivalry of religions as the location of the revelation of truth. Revelation occurs only as God gives Godself to be known, Pannenberg asserts with Barth. But the focal point of this revelation is the historical process. For Pannenberg this history is the history of religions. On the world-historical stage, conflicting truth claims, which are at their core religious, struggle for supremacy. The religion that best illumines all reality will in the end prevail and thereby demonstrate its truth value.[12]
Pneumatology
Significant area is Pannenberg’s pneumatology. He rejects the prevalent tendency to reduce the Spirit’s role to that of providing explanations for situations in which rational suggestions fail. In its stead, he promotes a much broader and more biblical doctrine that emphasizes the Spirit’s all-pervasive, creative presence in creation and human life, climaxing in the new life of the believer. Pannenberg understands spirit as “field,” a conception somewhat like the field theory introduced in 19th cenrury science, which describes the interaction of material bodies in terms of interlocking networks called forces (e.g., magnetic fields).
This new pneumatology is evident in Pannenberg’s doctrine of God. In agreement with the atheistic criticism of Feuerbach and others, he rejects as a mere projection the classical understanding of God as reason and will. The divine essence, Pannenberg maintains, may be better described in terms of the incomprehensible field or spirit, which likewise comes forth as the third person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit.[13]
This same Spirit functions as the principle of the immanence of God in creation and the participation of creation in the divine life. Pannenberg relates the Christian affirmation of the Spirit as the source of life in creation to the biological discovery that life is essentially ecstatic. Every organism lives in an environment that nurtures it. And every organism is oriented by its own drives to move beyond its immediate environment toward the future of itself and its species. This is how creatures participate, in God through the Spirit, he asserts. The Spirit may be understood as the environmental network or, “field” in which and from which creatures live. The Spirit is also the “force” that lifts them above their environment and orients them toward the future. This work of the Spirit ultimately leads people to self-transcendence and forms the basis for the special life in Christ, found beyond oneself in the church.[14]

Christology
Christology offers the context for another aspect of Pannenberg’s theology. Well known is his emphasis on Jesus as the prolepsis of God’s self-disclosure, which ultimately lies at the end of history., Equally familiar is the centrality of the resurrection for Pannenberg’s Christology and his emphasis on the historicity of this event. The resurrection of Jesus is God’s confirmation of Jesus’ appearance and mission. Through it he experienced in the midst of history that eschatological transformation to which humanity is destined.[15]
Not as well known, however, are two other aspects of Pannenberg’s systematic-theological Christology that differ from, the approach taken in Jesus: God and Man. That monograph presupposed the reality of God and unfolded solely in terms of a Christology “from below,” focusing on Jesus’ humanity. Pannenberg finds this approach insufficient for Christology pursued in a systematic-theological context. Assertions concerning God can never be derived from anthropology alone, but must also proceed from the idea of God. Therefore, he proposes that Christology be developed from a specifically Christian anthropology, undertaken with an awareness of the doctrine of God.[16]
Pannenberg’s other christological innovation is his reintroduction of the concept of logos, which in Jesus: God and Man he replaced with the idea of revelation as the point of departure for Christology. In the doctrine of creation he forges a link between the logos and the scientific concept of information. This link provides the logos the cosmological function he finds necessary for its use in Christology. He docs not relate the logos to traditional physics, which abstracts laws from time. Rather, Pannenberg understands the logos as representing the order of the world as history. Jesus is the logos not as some cosmic abstract principle, but in his human life as Israel’s Messiah and as the one who brings the proper relationship of the creature to the Creator.[17]
Church
Pannenberg would replace the traditional Protestant focus on guilt and forgiveness with a sacramental spirituality. This view is the outworking of his understanding of the church as the sign of the future kingdom of God. It serves the ecumenism toward which Pannenberg’s theology is directed and which he sees as integral to the hope of humanity in general.
The linchpin of Pannenberg’s proposal for an ecumenical sacramental spirituality lies in baptism, for in this rite the believer’s identity and existence extra se in Christ are signified and grounded. Yet the central expression of this spirituality is found in the celebration of the Eucharist, which he sees as the proleptic sign of the future fellowship in the kingdom of God, which no political order can fulfill.
Pannenberg’s ecumenical theology of the Eucharist seeks to include the concerns of all major Christian traditions. Integral to it ate both an emphasis on the real presence of the risen Lord, reflecting the concern of the Lutheran and Roman Catholic traditions, and on widening the rite beyond the elements themselves to encompass the entire celebration and the Spirit’s crucial role in it, in keeping with the Orthodox and Reformed positions. He likewise advocates understanding the role of clergy as representing the unity of the church. All of this is directed to overcoming the major stumbling blocks to church unity. Unity is crucial, Pannenberg maintains, if the church is to exercise a positive influence in secular society.[18]
Eschatology
The final contribution of Pannenberg’s program is its eschatological orientation, for his entire systematic theology focuses on the eschaton, and thereby on hope. He understands the kingdom of God as the glory of the Trinity demonstrated in God’s rulership over creation. He docs not view it in terms of an ethical community, as does much of 19th century theology, but in accordance with the exegetical discoveries of the 20th century, which find the source of this term in the apocalyptic movement and the teachings of Jesus. The biblical message of the kingdom is eschatological in orientation, for it proclaims God’s ultimate lordship over creation, which lordship has already broken into history in the appearance of Jesus. En route to the eschaton, the Christian community lives in hopeful expectation of the final consummation of the lordship of God over the entire world. Only then will the glory and reality of the triune God be fully demonstrated.
Since the publication of Revelation as History (German 1961, ET 1969), the theology of Wolfhart Pannenberg has been distinguished by a focus on eschatology and universality, by an intense and intellectually rigorous conviction that the concrete anticipation of the eschaton in Jesus’ resurrection was also the meaning of the universal history of God’s relationship to creation. Christian Mostert’s God and the Future expounds, explores and defends this remarkable theological achievement, bringing to the fore the union of eschatology and universality in Pannenberg’s complex and innovative understanding of the future. For Mostert, while the early Pannenberg (of e.g. the ‘Dogmatic Theses on the Doctrine of Revelation’ in Revelation as History) emphasized eschatology, and the later Pannenberg (of the magisterial three volume Systematic Theology; volume 1 German 1988; ET 1991) the doctrine of the trinity, his work is characterized by a fundamental union between a theology of God’s rule and God’s being, a complex and sustained elucidation of the trinitarian meaning of Christian eschatology.[19]
Conclusion
Pannenberg is well situated among the great contemporary Protestant theologians. On the one hand, he is clearly a confessional Lutheran “Word of God” theologian. Yet, on the other hand, from a methodological point of view he is a post-Enlightenment liberal. His attempt to bring together Lutheran tradition with a contemporary method is what makes his theology so interesting and compelling.
One important legacy that Pannenberg will leave for your young theologians at the turn of the century is an interdisciplinary paradigm for constructing theology. Pannenberg’s Systematic Theology is a brilliant presentation of an authentically Christian and intellectually plausible view of reality, developed in intradisciplinary theological cooperation and tested in interdisciplinary dialogue with other sciences. Philosophy plays a critical, multi-faceted role in theology which is conducted in this paradigm. It provides a metaphysical reflection to describe the world which is an independent locus of systematic theology is comparative theology, seeing Christian theology from the outside perspective of other theologies. Nonetheless, Pannenberg, by taking Troeltsch’s philosophical criticisms to heart, staying true to Lutheran Orthodoxy, and establishing the credibility of the Christian belief through the cannons of probable reasoning, Pannenberg has produced a post-Enlightenment Christian system which is comprehensive, credible and compelling.
Bibliography
George H. Kelm. “Basic Questions in Theology Vol: 11.” Fortress Press, 1971. Philadelphia. Trans.
http//:www.christiancentury.org. “God’s Presence in History.” 1981.
Lewis L. Wilkins and Duane A. “Jesus – God and Man.” Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1968. Trans.
Geoffrey Bromiley. “Systematic Theology.” Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, Vol.1, Trans. 1991.
Stanley J. Grenz. “20th Century Theology.” Illinois: Intervarsity Press, 1992.
[1] Pannenberg. “God’s presence in history” (Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 1981), p.260.
[2] Ibid., p.261.
[3] Tupper 1974, p.19-44.
[4] Stanley J. Greny, 1992, p.186.
[5] Systematic Theology volume one, 1988.
[6] Stanley J. Greny, p.187.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Ibid., p.190.
[9] Pannenberg, “Basic questions in theology” volume two (SCM Press LTD, London, 1971), p.44.
[10] Stanley J. Greny, p.192.
[11] www.christiancentury.org
[12] Pannenberg, Basic Questions, p.65-118.
[13] www.christiancentury.org
[14] Ibid.
[15] Pannenberg, Jesus God and Man, p.21.
[16] Ibid., p.33.
[17] Ibid., p.365.
[18] www.christiancentury.org
[19] Ibid.

Dharma

2008-07-04T11:10:00.000-07:00

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1. WHAT IS DHARMA

2. KINDS OF DHARMA

3. BENEFITS OF THE PRACTICE OF DHARMA

4. FUNDAMENTALS OF DHARMA

5. MEANING AND ORIGINS OF THE WORD DHARMA

6. DHARMA IN HINDUISM

6.1 ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT IN HINDUISM
6.2 PROTO-DHARMARTA IN THE VEDAS
6.3 DEVELOPING CONCEPTIONS

7. DHARMA IN BUDDHISM

7.1 THE TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA
7.2 DHARMAS IN BUDDHIST PHENOMENOLOGY
7.3 DHARMA AS RIGHTEOUSNESS

CONCLUSION

BILIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The word Dharma - This Sanskrit word is derived from the root - Dhm Dhame. It means to hold or accommodate or possess or follow which is essential to survive in the world for an individual and society together with due harmony and consistency with the whole universe without fail. It is something suitable, relevant and worthy to act upon mentally and physically for the pleasure of all. Opposite of it is Adharma, which is not beneficial to any one in any respect and hampers the peace, prosperity and progress of the world.

The word Dharma is used in various contexts in the Vedas, the Upanishads etc. such as virtue, merit, attributes, nature, and quality. Duty, law, right, righteousness, property etc. All noble qualities, thoughts and actions are included in Dharma according to Manu, Patanjali and others. The truth, non-violence, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession are the main headings or principles of Dharma. Adharma is just contradictory to Dharma.

1. WHAT IS DHARMA

What is Dharma? Dharma is so called, because it holds: Dharma alone holds the people, etc. The word Dharma is derived from the root DHR- to hold- and its etymological meaning is ‘that which holds’ this world, or the people of the world, or the whole creation from the microcosm to the macrocosm. It is the eternal Divine Law of the Lord. The entire creation is held together and sustained by the All-powerful Law of God. Practice of Dharma, therefore, means recognition of this Law and abidance by it[1].

To whole saying is that which brings well-being to man is Dharma. Dharma supports this world. The people are upheld by Dharma. That which accrues preservation of beings is Dharma. Dharma leads to eternal happiness and immortality[2]. That which is Dharma is verily the Truth. Therefore, whosoever speaks the truth is said to speak Dharma, and whosoever speaks Dharma is said to speak the truth. One and the same thing becomes both. Dharma includes all external deeds, as well as thoughts and other mental practices, which tend to elevate the character of a man. Dharma comes from the Divine and leads you to the Divine[3].

Dharma means Achara or the regulation of daily life. Achara is the supreme Dharma. It is the basis of Tapas or austerity. It leads to wealth, beauty, longevity and continuity of lineage. Evil conduct and immorality will lead to ill-fame, sorrow, disease and premature death. Dharma has its root in morality the controller of Dharma is God Himself[4].

2. KINDS OF DHARMA

Dharma can be classified under two heads:
1) Samanya or the general, universal Dharma.
2) Visesha or the specific, personal Dharma.
1.Contentment, 2.forgiveness, 3.self-restraint, 4.non-stealing, 5.purity, 6.control of senses, 7.discrimination between right and wrong, as also between the real and the unreal, 8. Spiritual knowledge, 9.truthfulness and 10.absence of anger come under the general or universal Dharma. To say the rules of the castes and orders of life are specific Dharmas. These are the tenfold characteristics of Dharma according to Manu[5].

Dharma assumes various kinds: Sanatana Dharma (Eternal Law), Samanya Dharma (general duty), Visesha Dharma (special duty), Varnashrama Dharma (duties of caste and Order), Svadharma (one’s own duty), Yuga Dharma (duty of the age or period in history), Kula Dharma ((duty of family), Manava Dharma (duty of man), Purusha Dharma (duty of male), Stri Dharma (duty of female), Raja Dharma (duty of king), Praja Dharma (duty of subjects), Pravritti Dharma (duty in worldly life) and Nivritti Dharma (duty in spiritual life)[6].

3. BENEFITS OF THE PRACTICE OF DHARMA

Of the four grand objects of human aspirations (Purusharthas), viz., Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, Dharma is given the foremost rank in the scriptures. Dharma alone is the gateway to Moksha, to immortality, infinite bliss, supreme peace and highest knowledge. Dharma alone is the primary Purushartha. Dharma is the first and foremost Purushartha. Through the practice of Dharma alone can you ever hope to achieve the crowning glory of all human endeavors, viz., Moksha (liberation) which is the best and the highest of all desirable things[7].

Practice of Dharma leads to the perfect realization of essential unity or the final end, the highest good, namely, Moksha (liberation). The practitioner experiences peace, joy, strength and tranquility within himself. His life becomes thoroughly disciplined. His powers and capacities are exceedingly intensified. He realizes that there is one underlying homogeneous essence, a living truth, behind these names and forms. He is transmuted into divinity. His whole nature gets transformed. He becomes one with the Eternal. He beholds Brahman (the Supreme Reality) above, Brahman below, Brahman to the right, Brahman to the left, Brahman in front, Brahman at the back, Brahman within, Brahman without and Brahman pervading the whole world[8].

4. FUNDAMENTALS OF DHARMA

The Vishnu Samhita enumerates forgiveness, truthfulness, control of the mind, purity, practice of charity, control of the senses, non-violence, service of the Guru, visiting places of pilgrimage, compassion, simplicity, absence of greed, worship of the gods and the Brahmanas, and absence of malice as the ingredients of Samanya Dharma, the general law for all men[9].
The Mahabharata enumerates as the fundamentals of Dharma: The performance of Sraddha or offering oblations to the forefathers, Religious austerity, Truth, Restraint of anger, Satisfaction with one’s wife, purity, Learning, Absence of envy, Knowledge of the Self and, Forbearance[10].

It is said in Padma Purana that Dharma proceeds from continence, truthfulness, austerity, charity, self-control, forbearance, purity, non-violence, serenity and non-thieving and that one should recognize Dharma by these ten factors. According to this Purana, bestowing gifts on deserving persons, fixing one’s thoughts on Lord Krishna, adoration of one’s parents, offering a portion of the daily meal to all creatures and giving a morsel of food to a cow are the characteristics of Dharma[11].

According to Matsya Purana, freedom from malice, absence of covetousness, control of the senses, austerity, celibacy, compassion, truthfulness, forbearance and fortitude constitute the fundamentals of Sanatana Dharma[12].Patanjali Maharshi, the exponent of Raja Yoga philosophy, recommends that all men should practice ten virtues. The first five are: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Brahmacharya (celibacy in thought, word and deed), Asteya (non-stealing) and Aparigraha (non-covetousness). These constitute Yama or self-restraint. The other five virtues are: Saucha (internal and external purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of scriptures or recitation of Mantra) and Isvarpranidhana (consecration of the fruits of all works to the Lord). These constitute Niyama or religious observance[13].

The Gita enumerates the following virtues as Daivi-Sampat or divine qualities: fearlessness, purity of heart, steadfastness in the Yoga of Wisdom, alms-giving, self-restraint, sacrifice, study of the scriptures, austerity, straightforwardness, harmlessness, truth, absence of wrath, renunciation, peacefulness, absence of crookedness, compassion to living beings, non-covetousness, mildness, modesty, absence of fickleness, vigor, forgiveness, purity and absence of envy and pride. All these virtues are manifestations of the four fundamental virtues:
1. Non-violence, 2. Truth, 3.Purity, 4.Self-control[14].

All the above virtues come under the above four cardinal virtues. The virtues that are enumerated under the Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism and the virtues prescribed by Lord Jesus in his Sermon on the Mount, also come under the above fundamental virtues. The development of the divine qualities is indispensable for the attainment of Self-realization. Brahman or the Eternal is purity. The Eternal cannot be attained without the attainment of purity. Brahman is Truth. The Eternal cannot be attained without practicing truth. Brahman is fearlessness. The Eternal cannot be attained unless you become absolutely fearless. Attachment to the body causes fear and Dehadhyasa. If only you become fearless, then the identification with the body will vanish[15].

Non-violence
Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important virtue. That is the reason why Patanjali Maharshi has placed it first in Yama. Practice of Ahimsa must be in thought, word and deed. Practice of Ahimsa is not impotence or cowardice or weakness. It is the highest type of heroism. The practice demands immense patience, forbearance and endurance, infinite inner spiritual strength and gigantic will power[16].

Ahimsa is a modification or expression of truth only. Satyam (truth) and Ahimsa always go together. He who is established in Ahimsa can move the whole world. In his presence, all hostilities vanish; lion and cow, cobra and mongoose, live together peacefully. Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism lay great stress on Ahimsa. Lord Jesus also has emphasized much on Ahimsa in his Sermon on the Mount. He says: "If any one beats you on one cheek, show him the other cheek also"[17].

Truth
Brahman (the Supreme Reality) is Sat or Existence-Absolute. Truth must be observed in thought, word and deed. If you are established in truth, all other virtues will cling to you by themselves. Harishchandra sacrificed everything for the sake of truth. He lives still in our hearts. Yudhishthira was also devoted to truth. There is no virtue higher than truth. Practice of truth and Ahimsa constitute the crown and glory of ethical life. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the preceptor says in his convocation address to the students: "Satyam vada"-Speak the truth. The world is rooted in truth. Dharma is rooted in truth. All religions are rooted in truth. Honesty, justice, straightforwardness and sincerity are only modifications or expressions of truth[18].

Purity
Purity comprises both external purity and internal purity. Purity implies both purity of body and purity of mind. Purity of body is only the preliminary to purity of mind. The body is the temple of God. It should be kept clean by daily bathing and clean dress. Cleanliness is a part of godliness. The restriction in diet is best calculated to make the mind pure. Food exercises a direct influence on the mind. Sattvic food makes the mind pure. Purity of food leads to purity of mind. Mind is only made up of the fine essence of food. As the food is, so is the mind[19].

Self-control
Self-control implies both control of the body and control of the mind. Self-control does not mean self-torture. You must lead a well-regulated and disciplined life. You must keep all the senses under your perfect control. The senses are like turbulent and wild horses. This body is like a chariot. Mind is the reins. Intellect is the driver. The Atman is the Lord of the chariot. If the senses are not kept under proper control, they will throw this chariot into a deep abyss. You will come to ruin. He who keeps the reins firm and drives this chariot intelligently by controlling the horses (senses), will reach the destination (Moksha or the abode of Eternal Bliss) safely[20].

Self-control implies self-sacrifice, annihilation of egoism, patience, endurance, forbearance and humility. Overcome Raga or attachment by Vairagya or dispassion. Dispassion will dawn in your mind if you look into the defects of sensual life such as birth, death, disease, old age, pain, sorrow, etc. (Mithya-Drishti and Dosha-Drishti). Overcome anger and hatred by Kshama or forgiveness, love and selfless service. Overcome evil by good. Return good for evil. Overcome lust by the practice of Brahmacharya and regular Japa (repetition of Mantra or Lord’s name) and meditation. Conquer greed by charity, generosity and disinterested actions. Conquer pride by humility and delusion by discrimination and enquiry. Overcome jealousy by magnanimity, Atma-Bhava and nobility. Conquer egoism by self-sacrifice, self-surrender, self-abnegation and meditation on the non-dual, eternal, self-luminous Brahman, thy innermost Self, the Inner Ruler, and the immortal[21].

5. MEANINGS AND ORIGINS OF THE WORD DHARMA

The word Dharma or dhamma (Pali) is used in most or all philosophies and religions of Indian origin, the dharmic faiths, namely Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma), Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Dharma also is practiced in the Surat Shabda Yoga traditions. In its oldest form, dharman, it first appears in the Vedas[22].

It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for Dharma (since life fails to convey its connoted complexity). The word has a long and varied history and complex set of meanings and interpretations. Certain Westerners and Orientalists have proposed a number of possible translations, from "justice" to "religion", however these definitions have evolved with their associated usage in Western culture[23].

"Dharma" derives from the verbal root, “dhri”, which simply means "manner of being." The term must therefore be understood in its original (i.e. metaphysical) context, that of a conformity to a divine or creative principle at work in an individual and in nature. It represents the individual's internal law, to which obedience must be given if that individual life is to live in accordance with a Divine Will. This is what Hindus consider the sole or primary purpose of life. It explains how justice finds its place among the many modern definitions of the word dharma[24].

Dharma is cognate with the Latin firmus, the origin of the word firm. Meanings related to law, morality, scripture, and teachings were probably acquired through analogy, by being regarded as firm and called as such. For the phenomenological or psychological meaning, see below. To say, Yama, the lord of death, is also known as Dharma, since he works within the laws of karma and morality, regulated by divine principles. More familiar is the embodiment of Dharma in Lord Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. The eldest Pandava, Yudhishthira was referred to as DharmaRaj owing to his steadfastness to Truth & Dharma[25].

The teachings, doctrines, philosophies and practices associated with furthering Dharma are also referred to as such. Sometimes, specific qualifiers are used - viz. Bauddha-Dharma and Jain-Dharma to distinguish them from Sanatana-Dharma[26].

For the many Buddhists, the Dharma most often means the body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The word is also used in Buddhist phenomenology as a term roughly equivalent to phenomenon, a basic unit of existence and/or experience. In scripture translations dharma is often best left untranslated, as it has acquired a lively life of its own in English that is more expressive than any simplistic translation. Common translations and glosses include "right way of living," Divine Law, Path of Righteousness, order, faith, "natural harmony," rule, fundamental, and duty. Dharma may be used to refer to rules of the operation of the mind or universe in a metaphysical system, or to rules of comportment in an ethical system[27].

6. DHARMA IN HINDUISM

Within Indian philosophy "dharma" also means "property" and "dharmin" means "property-bearer". In a Sanskrit sentence like "zabdo 'nityaH" (Sanskrit transliterated according to the Kyoto-Harvard convention), "sound is impermanent", "sound" is the bearer of the property "impermanence". Likewise, in the sentence "iha ghataH", "here, there is a pot", "here" is the bearer of the property "pot-existence" - this just goes to show that the categories property and property-bearer are closer to those of a logical predicate and its subject-term, and not to a grammatical predicate and subject[28].

6.1 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT IN HINDUISM

A common manner of describing Hinduism among its adherents is as a way of life, as "Dharma." It defies dogma and thus seeks to instead align the human body, mind, and soul in harmony with nature. Our very limitation is guided under a universal understanding, that of Dharma. The Atharva Veda, the last of the four books of the Vedas, utilizes symbolism to describe dharma's role. Thus we are bound by the laws of time, space and causation according to finite reality, which itself is a limitation imposed by the self-projection of the infinite Brahman as the cosmos[29]. Dharma is the foundation of this causal existence, the one step below the infinite. Indeed, dharma is the projection of divine order from Brahman, and as such:
"Prithivim Dharmana Dhritam"
"This world is upheld by Dharma" [30].

6.2 PROTO-DHARMARTA IN THE VEDAS

To assess a concept whose explication is bewildering in range, it is useful to trace its nascence and subsequent development in Vedic culture. In the Vedas, which span back to 2000 BCE (and much further in oral tradition), the first concept that is strikingly dharmic is that of rta. To say, Rta literally means the "course of things." At first, the early Hindus (or followers of the "Sanatan Dharma") were notably confused as to the inscrutable order of nature, how the heavenly bodies, the rushing winds and flowing waters, the consistent cycling of the seasons, were regulated. Thenceforth sprang rta, whose all-purpose role it was to signify this order, the path that was always followed. Through all the metamorphoses and permutations of nature, of life in general, there was one unchangeable fact: rta[31].

Soon it transcended its passive role as a mere signifier and took on a greater one, that of an active imposition of order. Not only the natural principles, but also the gods and goddesses themselves, were obliged to abide by rta. Rta became the father, the law of justice and righteousness, unyielding but eminently fair. It grew, as Radhakrishnan states, from "physical" to "divine" in it’s purvey[32].

The world's seeming mess of altercating fortune, the caprice of the divinities, was now intelligible. Indeed, there was a single, unchanging harmony working 'behind the scenes.' A right path existed, ready to be taken by the righteous ones. Rta signifies the way life ought to be, shifting from physical to divine, from natural to moral order. Rta was morality, the equitable law of the universe. The conception of this all-transcending, supramental force that is, practically, the same concept as later understandings of dharma, is captured in this early Vedic prayer, preempting the liturgical strains of classical Hindu mantras involving dharma:
For Example we see the prayer,
"O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils”. From (Rig Veda Book X, Chapter CXXXIII, Verse 6)
Thus we see the logical progression of an early 'course of things' into an all-encompassing moral order, a path and way of righteousness, an all-encompassing harmony of the universe, in the Vedic idea of Rta[33].

6.3 DEVELOPING CONCEPTIONS

An earlier and insightful demonstration of the continuity of thought from rta to dharma is a brief but "pregnant definition" ((3) of dharma given in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, a pre-Buddhist work dating back to between 1000 to 700 BCE. Founded upon the Hindu ideas of, as R. H. Hume's "intelligent monism," with Brahman the monad, the Upanishads saw dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the universe. It is sat, truth, a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda" (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma has imbibed the highest principles of Truth, and as such is the central guiding principle in the Hindu conception of existence. Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality[34].

7. IN BUDDHISM

Dharma" means "protection". By practicing Buddha's teachings we protect ourself from suffering and problems. All the problems we experience during daily life originate in ignorance, and the method for eliminating ignorance is to practice Dharma. Practicing Dharma is the supreme method for improving the quality of our human life. The quality of life depends not upon external development or material progress, but upon the inner development of peace and happiness[35].

For example, in the past many Buddhists lived in poor and underdeveloped countries, but they were able to find pure, lasting happiness by practicing what Buddha had taught. If we integrate Buddha's teachings into our daily life, we will be able to solve all our inner problems and attain a truly peaceful mind. Without inner peace, outer peace is impossible[36]. If we first establish peace within our minds by training in spiritual paths, outer peace will come naturally; but if we do not, world peace will never be achieved, no matter how many people campaign for it. An extensive presentation of Dharma can be found in Joyful Path of Good Fortune[37].

7.1 THE TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA

For practicing Buddhists, references to "dharma" or dhamma in the singular, particularly as "the" Dharma, is used to mean the teachings of the Buddha, and is sometimes referred to as the Buddha-Dharma. Dharma is the universal law of nature and to call it Buddha-Dhamma suggests that other kinds of Dharma may exist. But this is not so, there is only one Dharma. The term Buddha-Dharma merely refers to the fact that the Buddha, not created by him, discovered it[38].
The status of the Dharma is regarded variably by different traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate and transcendent truth, which is utterly beyond worldly things, somewhat like the Christian logos. Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the Dharma more as a useful set of ideas and suggestions for how to live one's life, not requiring any special transmundane status. "Dharma" usually refers inclusively not just to the sayings of the Buddha but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and expand upon the Buddha's teachings[39]. The Dharma is also one of the Three Jewels, and Buddhists are said to seek refuge in it as in the Buddha and the Sangha[40].

7.2 DHARMAS IN BUDDHIST PHENOMENOLOGY

Other uses include, dharma, normally spelled with a small “d” (to differentiate), and refer to "phenomenon" or "constituent factor" of human experience. This was gradually expanded into a classification of constituents of the entire material and mental world. Rejecting the substantial existence of permanent entities, which are qualified by possibly changing qualities, Buddhist Abhidharma philosophy, which enumerated seventy-five dharmas, came to propound that these "constituent factors" are the only type of entity that truly exists[41]. This notion is of particular importance for the analysis of human experience: Rather than assuming that mental states inhere in a cognizing subject, or a soul-substance, Buddhist philosophers largely propose that mental states alone exist as "momentary elements of consciousness", and that a subjective perceiver is assumed[42].

One of the central tenets of Buddhism, is the denial of a separate permanent "I", and is outlined in the Three Signs of Being / Three Seals of Existence. The three signs: 1. Dukkha - Suffering (Pali: Dukkha), 2. Anitya - Change/Impermanence (Pali: Anicca), 3. Anatman - No-I (Pali: Annatta). At the heart of Buddhism, is the denial of an "I" (and hence the delusion) as a separate self-existing entity. Later, Buddhist philosophers like Nagarjuna would question whether the dharmas (momentary elements of consciousness) truly have a separate existence of their own[43].

7.3 DHARMA AS RIGHTEOUSNESS

According to S. N. Goenka, teacher of Vipassana Meditation, the original meaning of dhamma is “dhareti ti dhamma’, or “that which is contained”. Dharma in the Buddhist scriptures has a variety of meanings, including “phenomenon”, and "nature" or "characteristic". Dharma also means ‘mental contents’, and is paired with citta, which means heart/mind[44]. The pairing is paralleled with the pairing of kaya (body) and vedana (feelings or sensations, that which arise within the body but experienced through the mind), in major sutras such as the Mahasatipatthana sutra. Dharma is also used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha, not in the context of the words of one man, even an enlightened man, but as a reflection of natural law which was re-discovered by this man and shared with the world. A person, who lives their life with an understanding of this natural law, is a “dhammic” person, which is often translated as “righteous”[45].

CONCLUSION

Therefore the rule is to follow the Dharma with zeal and enthusiasm and discharge your duties faithfully. The issue is to develop all the virtues, which constitute Dharma and never to deviate an inch from the path of righteousness. One has Stick to Dharma with all your heart, with your entire mind and with all your soul and we can see even the Bible records the same i.e. to love the Lord with all your heart, mind and soul. The necessary to performance one’s duties brings happiness, quick evolution and freedom and this will help us ultimately to soon attain immortality, eternal bliss, supreme peace, perennial joy, absolute freedom and perfection. Therefore one should give ultimate glory to Dharma, which is the supreme light that leads you to the kingdom of eternal bliss and everlasting peace.

[1] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 232.
[2] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: Blackie $ son Publishers PVT. LTD, 1985), 58.
[3] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 233.
[4] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: Blackie $ son Publishers PVT. LTD, 1985), 67.
[5] http://www.here-now4u.de/eng/dharma_and_religion.htm, viewed on 20/10/2005.
[6] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 234.

[7] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers PVT. LTD, 1991), 186.
[8] http://www.here-now4u.de/eng/dharma_and_religion.htm, viewed on 20/10/2005.
[9] http://www.kadampa.org/english/reference/about_dharma.php, viewed on 20/10/2005.
[10] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 236.

[11] http://www.hinduism.co.za/dharma.htm#Vedas, viewed on 20/10/2005.
[12] http://www.kadampa.org/english/reference/about_dharma.php, viewed on 20/10/2005.
[13] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 238.
[14] M. Hiriyana, The Essential of Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: George Allen $ Unwin Private Limited, 1973), 97.
[15] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 240.
[16] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers PVT. LTD, 1991), 188.
[17] http://www.hinduism.co.za/dharma.htm#Vedas, viewed on 20/10/2005.
[18] M. Hiriyana, The Essential of Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: George Allen $ Unwin Private Limited, 1973), 97.
[19] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers PVT. LTD, 1991), 187.
[20] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 246.

[21] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 247.
[22] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 78.
[23] R.E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921), 165.
[24] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 78.
[25] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 44.
[26] P T. Raju, Introduction to Comparative Philosophy, (Delhi: Mothilal Benarsidass Publishers, 1992), 144.
[27] R.E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921), 166.
[28] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 79.
[29] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: Blackie $ son Publishers PVT. LTD, 1985), 89.
[30] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 47.
[31] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 83.
[32] S. Radhakrishnan, "Indian Philosophy Vol.1”, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 84.
[33] R.E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921), 168.
[34] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 49.
[35] M. Hiriyana, The Essential of Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: George Allen $ Unwin Private Limited, 1973), 102.
[36] Etienne Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism (Louvain: Institut Orientaliste, 1988), 201.
[37] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: Blackie $ son Publishers PVT. LTD, 1985), 96.
[38] S. Radhakrishnan, "Indian Philosophy Vol.1”, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 86.
[39] Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, A Historical Sketch, vol. 3, (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1921), 231.
[40] R.E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1921), 169.
[41] P T. Raju, Introduction to Comparative Philosophy, (Delhi: Mothilal Benarsidass Publishers, 1992),142.
[42] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 44.
[43] S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy Vol.1, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1923), 89.
[44] Akira Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism, from Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana, (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990), 60.
[45] E. Easwaran, E, The Upanishads, (Tomales: Nilgiri Press, 1987), 44.

St. Thomas

2008-07-04T11:08:00.000-07:00

St. Thomas In India
Submitted By Lenin Elijah

INTRODUCTION

The man whom we are proud to call as the Indian patron saint can be none other than St. Thomas, who was sent by God to India to each the Indians with the Gospel .The evidence shows clearly that he visited India in 52 A.D and reached on the coast, now called as the “Marthoma Gate”, and from there he established the first church in Kodungalor. This paper attempts to prove the historicity of St. Thomas arrival in India in a very systematic and organized way.

MYLAPORE

St. Thomas after working among the Brahmins was very successful and after spending nearly two and a half years in the Coromandal coast, he traveled to Mylapore where he won the respect of many Tamilians. Tradition says that once he single-handedly pulled a big log that nobody else can pull and therefore the king gave this big log as a gift. Thomas with that big log built a small chapel along the seashore with the help of the local people, whom he paid with sand, which is said that it later turned into gold. This small chapel said to build by Thomas served both as a chapel for him and the congregation as well as the home of the Apostle. Today it stands as the renowned Santhome Basilica, which contains the tomb of St. Thomas, a statue of St. Thomas in a sitting posture and also the statute of “Our Lady of Mylapore”. The Santhome Cathedral was built in 1896 and was raised to a level of a minor Basilica in 1956. It also has the glory of saying, that it is one among the two Cathedrals which is built on the tomb of an apostle in this whole world, the one is on the tomb of Peter in Rome and the other is the one in Mylapore. This place also houses a museum known as, “St. Thomas Information Centre and Museum”, which is a treasure house of great antiquity, and it is said that the spear by which he was killed was buried along with him. It is also said that St. Francis Xavier has spend many days in fasting and prayer before his voyage to the Far East. Now this place is a object of veneration of saint and on December 3rd every year there is a great celebration of the feast day of St. Thomas.

LITTLE MOUNT

Tradition says that the major reason for St. Thomas to go this, to say Thomas and the Local king Mahadena were close friends, but whereas Thomas was treated badly by his ministers, therefore he sought refuge in the jungles of little mount which is approximately 80 ft above sea level. This is the place where he lived, prayed and also preached among the people who sought after him no matter where he was. It seems once he quenched the thirst of those who came seeking after him just by producing water spring from the rocks. This place hosts specially the hand and the footprints of Thomas in the cave where he hid himself. It also has a miraculous handprint near the water spring. Tradition says that as the Apostles’ enemies chased him and he escaped through the window. At present there is a church in this place called, “The Little Mount” and it also contains the statistics of Thomas’ healing ministry and according to Ramban Pattu it is said that he raised 19 from the dead, 260 were released from demon possession, 230 healed from leprosy, 250 were given sight, 220 healed from paralytic, made the 20 dumb to speech and the 250 who were considered hopeless by physicians were restored to health. At present it also has a number of statues of the way to the cross and also many angels surround one of Mother Mary.

ST. THOMAS MOUNT

Since the enemies chased him he fled to a nearby mountain, which is 300ft above the sea level called the St. Thomas Mount, and after ascending to the mountain he installed his cross and began to pray. There is a recorded evidence that the stone cross on the altar was carved by St. Thomas and it is considered to be miraculous, as it sweated blood several times during mass between 1551 A.D to 1704 A.D and the inscription on the cross in the language ‘Nagari Palidi’, means, “Through cross-suffering the Messiah Jesus brought salvation to the world”. The chapel also contains the picture of Our Lady, which is said to have been painted by St. Luke and brought to India by St. Thomas. This place known as “the Calvary of St. Thomas” is where he was attacked and killed by the mob of ferocious Chinnambranar Brahmins while he was praying. This church was built in 1547 and at present contains the title Senhora Da Expectacao and contains the spot where he was pierced with a lance and killed. The chapel also hosts the picture of the thirteen disciples (along with Paul) and Jesus and the manner in which they died and also the relics of St. Thomas. The bone of St. Thomas is also preserved there. On 5th February 1986, Pope John Paul- II visited this place and blessed a large gathering. Later his body was taken back to his house, which was also the in Mylapore, where he was buried. Tradition also says that he was buried along with the spearhead by which he was killed.

CONCLUSION

From the above trip to these three historical places it is proved beyond doubt that the historicity of St. Thomas is very much true. Though there are different traditions like Indian Tradition and Western Tradition that he came to south India and preached the Gospel. It is also true that the straight road between St. Thomas to Paris Corner is named as Mount Road after St. Thomas. But the point here his coming to South India, especially Santhome, St.Thomas Mount and Little Mount cannot be disproved at all.

YOGA

2008-07-04T11:04:00.000-07:00

INTRODUCTION
Yoga is a way of life. It is predominantly concerned with maintaining a state of equanimity at all costs. All yoga schools of thought emphasize the importance of the mind remaining calm, because as the saying goes, only when the water is still can you see through it. Yoga Darshan or Yoga Philosophy also happens to be a valid discipline of Indian metaphysics (Brahma Vidya). It is the result of human wisdom and insight on physiology, psychology, ethics and spirituality collected together and practiced over thousands of years for the well being of humanity.
The basic idea of yoga is to unite the atma or individual soul with the paramatma or the Universal Soul. According to Yoga philosophy, by cleansing one's mind and controlling one's thought processes one can return to that primeval state, when the individual self was nothing but a part of the Divine Self. This is the sense encapsulated in the term samadhi. The aim of the yogi is to be able to perceive the world in its true light and to accept that truth in its entirety.[1]

In Sanskrit, the term 'yoga' stands for 'union'. A yogi's ultimate aim is to be able to attain this 'union' with the Eternal Self with the help of certain mental and physical exercises. It is often said that Hiranyagarbha (The Cosmic Womb) Himself had originally advocated the traditional system of yoga, from which all other yoga schools have evolved. But for all extant knowledge of yoga and its practices, such as yogasanas and pranayama, the entire credit goes to Maharishi Patanjali.[2]

1. WHAT IS YOGA?

The word "yoga" comes from the Sanskrit root yuj, which means "to join" or "to yoke". [3]Yoga is a practical aid, not a religion. Yoga is an ancient art based on a harmonizing system of development for the body, mind, and spirit. The continued practice of yoga will lead you to a sense of peace and well-being, and also a feeling of being at one with their environment. This is a simple definition. According to Patanjali, Yoga is a methodical effort to attain perfection, through the control of the different elements of human nature, physical and psychical.[4]

The practice of yoga makes the body strong and flexible, it also improves the functioning of the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and hormonal systems. Yoga brings about emotional stability and clarity of mind. In the practice of Yoga the ultimate aim is one of self-development and self-realization.[5]
In practice, yoga is an applied science of the mind and body. It comes from the Hindu Vedas (scriptures). Practice and study of it help to bring about a natural balance of body and mind in which the state of health can manifest it. Yoga itself does not create health; rather, it creates an internal environment that allows the individual to come to his own state of dynamic balance, or health. Basically, yoga teaches that a healthy person is a harmoniously integrated unit of body, mind and spirit. Therefore, good health requires a simple, natural diet, exercise in fresh air, a serene and untroubled mind and the awareness that main's deepest and highest self is identical with the spirit of God. As a result, to many devotees, yoga becomes a philosophy that offers instruction and insight into every aspect of life: the spiritual, the mental and the physical. Of course, because it is all encompassing, people who want to pick and choose from its smorgasbord can do so without being disappointed. Yoga is equally satisfying as a physical therapy alone.[6]
Yoga is best known as a set of physical practices that include gentle stretches, breathing practices, and progressive deep relaxation. These physical practices are intended to ready the body and mind for meditation as well as for a meditative perspective on life.[7] These meditative practices also follow a sequence. First developed is the capacity to withdraw the senses from focus on the outer world, then, the capacity to concentrate on a meditative subject-a candle flame, a sacred or uplifting word or image, or the movement of the breath. Finally, and for most of us only occasionally, the concentration leads into a wordless and timeless experience of inner peace. The yoga masters describe various subtleties among these states of inner peace, but most of us, at best, achieve moments of this experience from time to time.[8]

2. THE PATH OF YOGA

Patanjali defines yoga as complete suppression of all mental modes. Vyasa defines it as absorptive concentration, and regards it as a universal attribute of the mind. All persons can attain yoga by repeated practice and detachment.[9] The distracted, infatuated, and occasionally steady minds are not fit for it. The art of yoga is a matter of constant practice and discipline of the body, the vital forces, and the mind. It is pre-eminently an art of mental discipline. According to Rdhakrishnan “the reality of he self is to be found not by means of an objective and penetration beneath the mental strata with which our ordinary life and activity conceal our diviner nature .”[10] Therefore the yoga philosophy urges the necessity of inhibition of mental states is brought about by practice and conquest of desire.[11]
The yoga enjoins the practice of restraints (yama), observances (niyama), bodily postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), withdrawal of the sense-organs (pratyahara), fixation of attension (dharana), meditation (dyana), and absorptive concentration (samadhi) as aids to yoga (yoganga).
1. The first disciplines of restraint consist in non-injury, truthfulness in thought and speech, non-stealing, sexual restraint, and non-acceptance of unnecessary gifts. These are negative virtues. Non-injury consists in the absence of cruelty to all creatures In all possible ways and at all times. It is tenderness, good will, and kindness for all living beings. [12]
2. The second discipline of observance consists in cleanliness contentment, austerities, study of the scriptures, and dedication of all actions to God. Cleanliness is of two kinds, external and internal. The former is Cleanliness of body by means of water and other purifying articles. The later is by purging it of all impurities- attachment, aversion, pride, conceit, envy, and the like by cultivating good will, compassion, and cheerfulness. [13]
3. The third discipline is bodily posture. It is a steady and pleasant posture of the body, which should not be painful, and distract the mind.[14]
4. This is the withdrawal of the ex5ternal sense organs from their objects due to withdrawal of mind from them. The five discipline if restraint, observance, bodily posture, breath c9ntrol, and sense-control are the external aids to yoga. The last three disciplines, fixation of mind, meditation, and absorptive concentration are the internal aids of yoga. They directly lead to conscious trance.[15]
5. This step is the fixing the mind on a particular object. The object is either intra-organic,. The mi9nd is fixed on the navel, the heart, and the tip of the nose, the tip of the tongues, the middle off the eyebrows, the throat, and the like. Bodily postures control the body; breath control regulates the vital forces; and the withdrawal of the senses from their objects controls the senses; fixation of attention controls the mind. It requires withdrawal of the mind from other objects, and prepares it for meditation.[16]
6. The last one is absorptive concentration or trance. It is the manifestation of the object of meditation only devoid of the cognition of meditation.[17]

3. DIFFERENT SCHOOLS OF YOGA

Although Yoga has been made into a separate school (darsana), its influence and many of its practices have been felt in other schools. In the course of time, certain stages of Yoga became ends in themselves, notably, the breathing exercises and sitting postures, as in the Yoga school of Hatha Yoga. Patañjali's Yoga is sometimes known as Raja (“Royal”) Yoga, to distinguish it from the other schools. [18]Yoga, in a less technical sense of achieving union with God, is also used, as in the epic poem the Bhagavadgita, to distinguish the alternate paths (margas) to such a union. In the 20th century, the philosophy and practice of Yoga became increasingly popular in the West. The first important organization for practitioners in the United States was the Self-Realization Fellowship, founded by Paramahamsa Yogananda in 1920.[19] Some 50 years later, instruction emphasizing both the physical and spiritual benefits of Yogic techniques was available through a wide variety of sectarian Yoga organizations, nonsectarian classes, and television programs in the United States and Europe.[20]

3. PROOFS FOR EXISTENCE OF GOD

Yoga accepts the existence of God. Patanjali defines God as a special kind of purusa who is always free from the pains, actions effects and impressions. He is eternally free and was never bound nor his any possibility of being bound. He is above the law of karma.[21] According to Sinha Patanjali gives an ontological argument for the existence of god. The law of continuity gives points to His existence. God is the Supreme Being who is the embodiment of degrees, higher and lower. Ether has the largest magnitude, and atoms have the smallest magnitude. Similarly, knowledge admits of degrees. Knowledge of the past, present, future, remote, and supersensible objects, individual and collective. Is found in different degrees its culmination in God who is omniscient. He is the highest limit of omniscience. Vyasa applies the law of continuity to power and lordship. There are different degrees of lordship, which point to the greatest power, unequalled and unsurpassed. Power increases more and culminates in God, the supreme omnipotent Lord. If there were a more powerful lord than God, He would be the highest lord. If there were another equality powerful Lord, there wills would be thwarted by each other. So God is the supreme Person whose lordship is unrivalled and unexcelled.[22] According to Sharma God is omniscient and omnipotent and omnipresent. He is the perfection incarnate. He is purest knowledge. He is the teacher of the rsis and the teacher of the Veda. “Aum” is his symbol. Devotion to god is one of the surest means of obtaining concentration.[23]
The vedas refer to God. Therefore he must exist. Vyasa urges that there is a beginning less relation between the Vedas and the pre-eminence of God. God is the prime Mover of Prakrti, upsets its equilibrium and starts the evolution of the world. He cannot create, preserve or destroy prakrti, which is the material cause of the world. He is the inactive efficient cause of the world. Acceding to yoga god is omniscient and omnipotent. God is the unmoved Mover of prakrti, the efficient cause of the world, and is Moral Governor.[24]

4. THE NATURE OF THE GOD

Patanjali describes God as a particular self-untouched by afflictions, actins, fruits, and dispositions. He is the perfect self-free from all taint of imperfections. He is eternally free from afflictions, ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, and far of death. He is eternally fulfilled, and does not experience fruits of actions-enjoyment and suffering. The yoga system believes in monotheism.[25] God is one. If there were rival Lords, they would be of equal powers. If they had equal powers, they would thwart each other’s will and fail to realize their ends. If they had unequal powers, the superior Lord would be the true Lord, and the others would be inferior to him. Through the yoga system believes in one supreme God, it recognizes the existence of many gods who are entangled in empirical life owing to ignorance.[26] God has eternal Knowledge, desire, and will, which do not lapse even during dissolution. He is immutable –free from the mutations of satva, rajas, and tamas to create the scriptures. According to yoga God is omniscient, omnipotent, contented, independent, and ubiquitous. He has eternal powers and eternally manifested powers. He has ten eternal qualities-Knowledge, detachment, lordship, austerity, veracity, forgiveness, patience, creative, power, self-knowledge, and superintendence. God is the supreme teacher and He is unlimited by time.[27]

6. THE PREPARATIONS FOR YOGA

There are many kinds or types of Yoga. This idea of a variety in Yoga arises on account of a sectional thinking, into which we perforce have introduced ourselves as the result of our mental structure. Really, the Yogas are not many, just as we cannot say that the rays of the sun are many, though they appear to be so due to a peculiar projectional structure of the mechanism of this emanation. There is an objective way of thinking and also a subjective way, the connection between which is what we call knowledge, or perception. Our knowledge of the world, or the knowledge of anything, is a reaction set up between the subject and the object. Unless these two are there in juxtaposition, there will not be knowledge; there will not be any kind of experience. Every experience is a reaction between the percipient subject and the perceived object, whatever be the nature of that object, physical or otherwise.[28]

There are three ways of Yoga, which are the well-known systems of Karma (action), Bhakti (devotion) and Jnana (knowledge), in which schools like that of Kundalini Yoga, Tantra Yoga, Japa Yoga, and even Patanjali's system of Yoga, and various methods of self-analysis, get subsumed. Yoga is the process of the gradual withdrawal of consciousness from particulars to the generals, until the highest common factor is reached. The particularized attention paid by consciousness in respect of any thing is to be withdrawn into the more general background of it, and the more it goes near to the general background, the more does it approximate to the ideal of Yoga. This withdrawal, to repeat again what was noticed earlier, can be inward, outward, or transcendent.[29]
There are three kinds of withdrawal. Withdrawal means going into one's own self in an individual sense, but it need not necessarily mean that. One can withdraw oneself even into an object by a peculiar adjustment of consciousness and in that technique of objective withdrawal; the object ceases to be an object any more. Here consciousness assumes a different position by an adjustment of itself with the object in a novel way. In fact, Yoga is a gradual attempt of consciousness to convert every object into a subject; and the more do we succeed in transforming the object into the subject, the more are we said to be advancing in Yoga. [30]
. The way of Karma Yoga and Bhakti Yoga, and partly of the Yoga of Patanjali, and the initial stages of even Jnana Yoga. Everything starts with the concept of the object; only the notion of the object varies according to the different systems of practice, the notion getting widened gradually, in an ascending degree.

Before we start seriously any kind of practice in the direction of Yoga, we must be well up with the requisite preparations. The achievements in Yoga are a gradual evolution, a systematic advance and not a sudden jump. It is not a revolution that we are setting up. There is no revolutionary process in Nature. Everything grows slowly, stage by stage, without missing even one link in the process of development, as we have grown from babyhood to the adult stage. [31]

Yoga is a highly technical and systematic subject, and if the methods adopted are correct, there should be no doubt, whatsoever, as to the possibility of the achievement of the end. The time that you take in reaching the goal depends upon the extent of the intensity of the practice and the emphasis that your feelings lay upon it, the extent to which you are in communion with the ideal, which you are trying to contemplate. [32]
Times, which are suggestive of an automatic withdrawal of the mind from external activities, are to be preferred. Nighttime is generally, and obviously, helpful because of an automatic tendency of the mind at that time to withdraw itself into subjectivity. When we speak of time for the practice of Yoga, or meditation, what we actually mean is not merely the hour of the day, such as eight o'clock, etc., but a fixed time. There is a cyclic movement of everything in Nature. This system of cyclic movement applies not only to the external world of astronomy but also to the internal world of the psyche. If we start taking our meal at a particular hour and we continue taking it at the same hour, we will start feeling hungry at the same time and not at other times, because of a cyclic effect in Nature which generally gets associated with the way of thinking, and affects sympathetically the physiological functions. [33]

Yoga is a process of rejoicing. It is not a suffering. It is a movement through happiness. From one state of joy, we move to another state of joy. It is not that Yoga starts with sorrow, or that it is a kind of prison-house into which we are thrown. We have sometimes a feeling that Yoga is a torture, a suffering, to the normal life of man. Sadhana means a fear, and indicates an unnatural seriousness. This is so, often because people have created a picture of awe and sternness about Yoga, an other-worldliness about it, dissociated from the natural likings of the human being. Our desires are, no doubt, obstacles to Yoga. But they are 'our' desires; this much we must remember, and they are not somebody's. So, we have to wean ourselves from these desires gradually and not make it appear that we are peeling our own skin. Such a drastic step should not be taken, and it is not the intention of Yoga. [34]

7. YOGA AND HAPPINESS
To be present as the body is a skill that can be learned through yoga, for yoga means "to union." Be presently happy rather than seek to become happy is an open option for anyone. We can either chose to lose ourselves in fear, anger, despair and all those other negative states, or you can chose to feel the total bliss that lies beyond them. According to yoga happiness is our birthright, so claim it, be one of the people that decides to become all they can be, enjoy everyday, make the most out of life and live it don't just exist within it.
The ego is temporarily suspended, and our consciousness and energy rise. Ego is external and true happiness is internal, it is a state of attitude. We have an overwhelming feeling of happiness, total blissfulness, which has the divine quality of love. The opportunity to experience these feelings on a regular basis are available by choice and perspective. No one else but ourselves can do this for us. When we center ourselves and we are totally present as the whole body, we can get in touch with the larger reality that is your internal self in which we are immersed. Then our energy starts to flow more freely, and we feel that deep sense of security, intuiting that true identity that is you untouched by any conflict or pain.[35]
To live in an attitude of gratitude. You cannot become happy you can only be happy. Most people have experienced moments of joy or delight at one time or another in their lives. So you know what happiness feels like, that feeling when the whole body radiates with joyous energy and you feel like embracing everyone and everything. In those precious moments, you are in touch with something more real than your ordinary external self. [36]

7. YOGA AND PURIFICATION

The mind is like a garden and if one is to grow and flourish their garden they must do the weeding. The practice of purification is to take a deep look within one's conscious self and see the weeds that grow there. To directly confront one's selfish tendencies can, at times, be very challenging. However one does not grow without these kinds of opportunities and therefore must discard the dead weight that they carry around inside their minds. It is this kind of weight that holds one down and backs. Most people in this world are carrying so much dead weight that they go nowhere but down. [37]

The only way out - is through and to take these challenges head on. The practice of yoga allows the opportunity to clear the mind, it doesn't happen overnight however it is a long enjoyable journey to a mind of peace and enlightenment. A garden that flourishes and blooms with color and vitality. Purification of the mind is essential if one is to improve one's self and the removal of the domination of one's ego is essential. The ego is the external self, the way we want people to see us, the constant approval that the ego yearns for. The ego is the biggest weed in the garden of your mind and that suckers need to be ripped out.[38]

If you are looking to grow, you could compare it to taking a journey to a chosen destination; it is only at the beginning and the end that you are aware that you are traveling. During a long portion of the trip, you might feel like nothing is taking place at all. Through persistent practice and discipline, the purification of the mind takes place and one becomes full of great energies. Wisdom arises in the mind and happiness abides in the heart. The world opens up with opportunities galore. The way to a better self is through the route of purification, which is likely to hurt a little while the ego is being ripped out and thrown away. Remain confident and keep the focus, the improvements when practiced properly are permanent and life is full of clarity when the road is clear.[39]

CONCLUSION

The word Yoga is used in a variety of senses. It may simply mean “method”. It is often used in the sense of yoking. To the modern mind, Yoga scheme of attaining perfection appears to be only an elaborate process of self- hypnotisation. Intense and solitary meditations, accompanied by physical exercises and postures, help to make our minds run into particular moulds. The yoga discipline is nothing more than the purification of the body, mind and soul, and preparing them for the beatific vision. Since the life of man depends on the nature of the citta, it is always within our reach to transform our nature by controlling our citta. Patanjali insists on certain practices increased vitality, prolonged youth and longevity, these are to be employed in the interests of spiritual freedom. The other methods are employed to purify and tranquillize citta. The main interest of Patanjali is not metaphysical theorizing, but the practical motive of indicating how salvation can be attained by disciplined activity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hiranna, M. Out Lines of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1993.

------------------------------Encyclopedia Britannica, 1994-2002,

Hiriyana, M. The Essential of Indian Philosophy, Bombay: George Allen $ Unwin Private
Limited, 1973.

Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Blackie & Son Publishers PVT LTD, 1985.

Rao, P Nagaraja Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991.

Sharma, Chandradhar, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers, 1991.
Sinha, Jadunath, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Calcutta: New Central Book Agency, 1992.

http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/intro/intro_06.html\

[1] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Blackie & Son Publishers PVT LTD, 1985), 336.
[2] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy,(Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers,1991), 169
[3] Jadunath Sinha, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Calcutta: New Central Book Agency, 1992), 293.
[4] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, 338
[5] M.Hiranna, Out Lines of Indian Philosophy, (Delhi:Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1993.), 169.

[7] Ibid., 172.
[8] The idea is taken Encyclopedia Britannica, 2002. np.
[9] Jadanath Sinha, Out lines of Indian Philosophy, 295.
[10] Radhakrishnan, Indian philosophy, new (Delhi: Blackie &Son Publishers Pvt. LTD.), 351.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Jadanath Sinha,Outlines of Indian Philoophy,305.

[13] Ibid.,306.
[14] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 172.
[15] Jadanath Sinha, Outlines of Indian Philoophy, 305.
[16] P Nagaraja Rao, Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, (New Delhi: Indian Book Company, 1991), 303..
[17] Jadunath Sinha, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Calcutta: New Central Book Agency, 1992), 304-309.
[18] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, 169-172.
[19] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, 336-338.
[20] The idea is taken from Encyclopedia Britannica, 1994-2002, n.p.
[21] Shandradharma Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers), 174
[22] Jadunath Sinha, Out lines of Indian Philosophy, (Calcutta: New Central Book Agency,1992.), 298-299.
[23] Chandradhar Sharma, A Critical Survey of the Indian Philosophy, 174.
[24] Ibid., 299
[25] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, 368-372.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.., 300-302.
[28] M. Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, 267-268.
[29] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, 358.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, 359.
[32] Chandradhar Sharma, 170-174.
[33] Ibid.
[34] ibid.
[35] http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/intro/intro_06.html\viewed on 14.10.2005
[36] Ibid.
[37]M. Hiriyana, The Essential of Indian Philosophy, (Bombay: George Allen Unwin Private
Limited, 1973.), 203.
[38] Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, 337.
[39] ibid.,

BIOGRAPHY OF FRANCIS XAVIER

2008-07-04T10:58:00.000-07:00

BIOGRAPHY OF FRANCIS XAVIER
INTRODUCTION
The sixteenth century that was dominated by the events of the protestant reformation was also marked by a Catholic Reformation, a reformation to counteract the gains of the Protestants, to shore up the crumbling walls of the medieval church, and to expand the church to the distant shores where the name of Christ had never been spoken. This expansion was aimed not only at the new world, where colonial development was making rapid headway, but also toward India and the Far East. The Roman Catholic was anxious for the overseas travel and adventurous missionary monks and friars eagerly volunteered for duty. In this period the Jesuits (the society of Jesus) founded in 1535 became the Counter Reformation’s most active participant, whose founder was Ignatius of Loyola and under his control the little band of dedicated disciples grew into a highly centralized organization. The most famous of these early Jesuit missionaries was Xavier, one of Loyola’s inner circle of six. Francis Xavier is one of the outstanding men of the first half of the 16th century. His major achievement was the consolidate and spread of the Christian faith in India and in the Moluccas and Moro Islands of the Indonesian Archipelago, and also to introduce Christianity to the newly discovered islands of Japan.

EARLY LIFE OF FRANCIS XAVIER
He was born on near Sanguesa, in northern Spain on April 7th, 1506, the youngest of five children, two girls and three boys and was also a Spaniard noble related to the royal family of Navarre and France.
His father was Dr. Juan De Jassu, president of the Royal Council of Navarre and his mother was Maria de Azpilcueta, daughter of the royal chamberlain, Martin de Azpilcueta.
Xavier matriculated at the university of Paris in 1525 and took up residence at the college of Saint-Barbe, which was a stronghold of traditional medieval theology[1]. And, while he remained in Paris, Xavier earned the M.A degree in 1530, taught at Beauvais College from 1530- 1534 and studied theology from 1534- 1536 and left Paris with his missionary companions and made his way to Venice[2].
As a youth he attended the university of Paris, where his interests inclined towards philosophy and theology and it was there that he began spending time with a group of Protestants, dedicated young Christians who were risking their lives for the Gospel in the Catholic stronghold of Paris[3].
There he met Loyola, a man fiercely devoted to the Roman Catholic Church[4] and Xavier wanted nothing to do with Loyola, since he considered him as a bigoted fanatic and therefore he continued his dissipated way of life. Since learning came easy for Francis, instead of studying he spent most of his time gambling and carousing in the numerous Paris taverns. And the determined, iron-willed Loyola would not give up. He urged Xavier to abandon the way of the flesh and to be converted to Christian life. He never allowed an opportunity to pass without quoting an appropriate biblical text to Xavier. Even he was willing to share his money with Xavier and Xavier would gladly accept the assistance offered by Ignatius, whom he esteemed so little[5].
Finally during a late-night conversation concerning Xavier’s plan for the future, following Loyola’s casual mention of the words of Jesus from Matthew’s Gospel- “For what shall it profit a man if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his soul?” (Mattheew 16: 26) And it was this time that the Bible seared the heart of Xavier, he repented of his sins, and from that day forth he became a devoted follower of Ignatius Loyola.
It was not long before for Xavier when he turned his back on the Protestants and his tempting lucrative career he might have had in the Catholic Church[6]. Instead Loyola and Xavier, along with five others[7] (who formed the Society of Jesus)[8] in a small chapel in Mantmartre, joined in taking a vow of poverty, celibacy and charity and resolved to go to Jerusalem to convert the Muslim Turks and if this mission proved impossible, they pledged to travel to Rome to place themselves at the personal service of the pope[9] or to wholly to spread the catholic faith[10].
He joined with Loyola to form the Jesuit or the Society of Jesus, and in 1543, upon the request of the Portuguese king, and he carried letters from the pope appointing him as apostolic.
He was sent to India along with another priest, Paul De Camerino, under the Padrado.
The voyage took him 13 months and in this period he ministered to the sick.

MINISTRY OF FRANCIS XAVIER

BACKGROUND

Before Francis arrival, Thomas had established a number of churches and the church of St Thomas was subsequently fostered and ruled by the Patriarchates and the bishop of Syria, Asia Minor and Persia. There are also historical evidences which confidently assert that there were Christian communities along the coast from Karachi to Cape Comorin on the west and hence to Calcutta in the east. It is also said that the Armenian traders kept alive the faith in the churches all through the centuries providing them with priests from time to time. The church at St. Thomas mount is a pointer towards this and also the discoveries of buried ‘Persian’ crosses in Goa and elsewhere.

The immediate reason for the arrival of Francis Xavier was the conversion of the Paravas. Especially the persecution of the Paravas of the Pearl Fishery coast by Mussalman traders and the indifference and the failure of the Naiks of Madurai to protect this harrased and helpless tribe to seek protection from the Portuguese paved the way to the entry of the Roman Catholic church. Miguel Vase, the vicar general of Goa and the four ‘clerigos’, baptized about 20,000 and the new Christians were not intruded or cared for and in fact they were without a priest for a long time and it seems the Franciscan Friars seems to have send one in the Lent.

As we have seen about the conversion this resulted in creating a sensation in Europe. The pressing request of the good king John of Portugal for missionaries, especially of the new Society of Jesus resulted in Xavier embarking for India. Therefore he landed in Goa in May 1542, and he waited for favorable winds to go southwards. He was also hoping to be joined by his two companions from Portugal, Misser Paul and Francis Mansilhas who had been en route and Xavier did not wait for them any longer.

MINISTRY IN CAPE MISSION

It was in the month of October he reached the mission, i.e. in the Cape itself and also certain that he landed at a port considerably far from Unicorn. He also brought with him some parava boys as interpreters, who were preparing for priest hood at Goa. And he walked with them along the coast towards Unicorn staying a few days in each village, baptizing the children and promising a speedy return. This was a preliminary survey of the field[11].

To the problem of communication with Indian Christians, usually they preferred to teach Portuguese to a few favored ones and use them as interpreters rather than learning the local language themselves. But Xavier did not like this, therefore he set himself to learn Tamil (the ‘lingua Malabarica’ of His letters) and he spent four months at Tuticorin at this task, where he began to byheart things and also understood the language b experience, and still he did not master the language as he was satisfied with the minimum requires to deal with the fisher folk. Xavier with the help of his clerical companions and others had the important prayers, the creed and the commandments translated into Tamil. Then the copies were made on Palmyra leafs to be distributed to the Christian villages.

Later the Dutch dominated the region and tried their best to force the Paravas to leave the Catholic Church; the irrefutable argument was the appeal to the miracles of Xavier. “Raise the dead to life as did out by father Francis and then we shall join your church” was their reply to it and about one year Francis went lonely traveling from village to village for the spiritual welfare of the people, but it was too difficult for him without any helpers and the expected help did not come from Goa, therefore he decided to visit Goa for help. Therefore in December 1543 he went back, taking with him not only his original three companions but also some new recruits for the seminary. Then he returned in 1544 and brought with him not only Francis Mansilhas, but also some other helpers such as John De Lizans (a Spanish Priest), John D’ Ortiaza (a soldier) and a few Indian priests among whom John Coelho is mentioned often.

His second period in Cape Comorin was dedicated mostly to organize the churches and consolidating the faith of the people. The mission was conveniently divided among the ---------------, he himself taking in charge of the village from the Cape to the Manapad. But he was in constant touch with all their missionaries and their charges, visiting them, writing to them directly and connecting them and most of these letters are lost.

Gradually some Churches were erected in every village, catechism in organized, even schools opened for the people. Xavier was evolving every method of teaching illiterate people effectively so that the prayers and tenants as well as the Ten Commandments of the Church would remain fixed in their minds and hearts. The prevalent evil of drink had to be dealt with severely , and the prunes to quarrel cubed. Secret attachments to the old idols had to be eradicated and the people led slowly but surely to the practice of Christian virtues.

MINISTRY AMONG THE ARASARS: -
In June 1544 there was an invasion of the Badaga army in an effort to chastise the Christians of the Cape and to reassert the sovereignty of Madurai over that part of the peninsula. The army then turned towards the kingdom of Travancore itself. The Christians felt persecution the at the Raja felt he could not stem the tide of the Madurai army with his own forces. Perhaps he appealed to Xavier to get the help of the Portuguese.

Now Xavier himself was in Camuthurey among the Kadayars when news reached him of the plight of the Christians of the Cape. They had as usual taken refuge on the rock lying off the Cape, then Xavier quickly organized a boat for relief that carried provisions and even drinking water which was sear on the rocks and proceeded by seed to Succor them, but adverse mind drove him back. He must have them abandoned the project to try an overland route. Thus there was no time to get help from the Portuguese as the Badage army was fast approaching Koltar, just nine miles from the capital. Though we do not know about the certainty but it seems he met the captain of the army and talked him out of his quest for a fight by threatening him.

MISSIONARY METHODS

1) “Baptize first and then Teach”, but he was sure that they knew Jesus well, and he also took follow step, and the desire to embrace Christianity.
2) He always went on the streets with a bell in his hands, so that he would attract the children towards him.
3) He was a very busy minded and a planning person that he spent the morning with the youngsters (mostly boys), and he drilled them with Catechism and this resulted in making them effective Catholic Actionists. Later they became the secret agents in ferreting out abuses and bring out hidden idols to which their parents were still devoted and also they were the instruments in working out miracle when he was unable to attend. Afternoon he met with the woman folk and in the evening with the men.
4) He devoted the Saturdays to the teaching of the fairer sex, and on the Sundays he used to drill them in memorizing as the people were too illiterates and unformed for intellectual exercises.
5) He was very careful to give short explanations of the mysteries of Faith, i.e. the Life of Christ with stories and examples.

SOME CRITICISMS AGAINST XAVIER
Xavier not attempting to understand the oriental religionist[12].
Xavier for invoking help of the Inquisition [13].
Xavier for approving the persecution of the Nestorians[14].
For using the government of Goa as a means of proselytizing[15].

MINISTRY IN COCHIN, QUILON, MYLAPORE: -

When we consider Cochin a was next to Goa the biggest strongholds of Portuguese in India. A sizable colony of Portuguese was already there with a number of priests to look after their spiritual life. Already there had been some conversions both from non-Christians and from the ranks of St. Thomas Christians and for Xavier Cochin were not a mission field and only a major port to or from Goa. In this way he visited the town not les than eleven times. He was never idle, nor was he given rest and leisure, however well he might have some brief stopovers at Cochin to preach, attend the sick and to use his spiritual power especially among the loose living Portuguese. He was not conversant with the Malayalam language, a d nor is there any record of conversions through his ministry. There are letters that portrays of his occasional visit to Cannanore, Cranganore and Quilon and they are considered as outside his mission as his contacts were incidental. But it is noted that he chose Quilon to find a college and residence, the former for the boys of the Cape Mission, and the latter for the society. It was in this place that the first printing press in India was set up and thee first book in an Indian language was printed, which is about the Christian Doctrine written by Fr.Andriquey in Tamil. (Now a copy of it seen in America).
When we see the places like Nagapattinam and Mylapore, they were fortified by the Portuguese, where Xavier had occasion to call and Xavier spend many days in fasting and prayer at the sacred towns before finally deciding to divert his labor from India to the far-east and it was fro this place that he left on his voyage to Malacca and the spice Islands. He again passed through Mylapore in the middle of 1549 on is second voyage eastward that took him as far as Japan[16].

MINISTRY IN JAPAN
In July 1547, while at Malacca, Xavier met a Japanese named Anjiro.This man had committed a murder in his native land and had fled from the authorities on a Portuguese ship that lay at anchor in the bay off his home town of Kagoshima, and for a monetary consideration, the captain brought him at Malacca. On the way the Portuguese sailors told Anjiro about the Christian faith,especially about Heaven and Hell, the forgiveness of sins, and eternal life. The young Japanese was filled with the desire to embrace Christianity and receive forgiveness for his crime. At Malacca he met Xavier and was baptized[17].
As he talked with Anjiro and learned about Japan, Xavier became moe and more consumed with the idea of introducing Christianity into Anjiro’s native land. After returning to Goa and receiving and orienting a newely arrived detachment of Jesuit missionaries, Xavier made plans to go to Japan. Finally after learning as much as he could of the Japanese langualge from Anjiro, Xavier and two Jesuits set out for Japan in April 1549, accompanied by Anjiro[18].
They landed at Kagoshima in southern Japan on August 15th, 1549. Xavier and Jesuit companions spent the first year in improving the knowledge of the language and translation a short Catechism and the Apostle’s creed into Japanese. Xavier as his usual habit, memorized several dozen sermons in the native language to use as he went about preaching among people. As Anjiro had already warned Xavier that the Japanese would be won over by reason only, similarly, with that in mind, Xavier greatly desired to secure an audience wit the ruler of Japan, in which he could persuade him by means of argumentation to embrace Christianity and thereby to win with one blow the whole island for the Christian faith[19].
In the meantime he was welcomed by the local prince (Daimyo), obtained special permission to peach, and began slowly to build a Christian community in Kagoshima. The Buddhist monks, however sensing that Christianity was a powerful new rival religion, began to make trouble for Xavier and his friends. Therefore leaving behind a congregation of about 100 converts; Xavier decided to penetrate to the center of Japan in order to spread the faith and especially the supreme ruler of the island, which would affect the conversion of the entire population[20].
Preaching at Hirado, Hakata, Yamaguchi, and Sakai, he finally arrived at Kyoto, the imperial capital in January 1551. There, he was disappointed to learn that real political power at that time rested not with the Mikado (emperor) or with the shogun (military leaders) but with the various regional daimyos. Frustrated in his plan for mass conversion of Japanese by this turn of events, Xavier returned to Kagoshima. There, he altered his method of approach to the Japanese. Realizing that they had little regards for humility but understood only pride and arrogance, and they would not abandon their old religions unless, “reasoned into the kingdom of God”, Xavier changed his tactics. Abandoning the appearance of apostolic poverty, he now put on better clothing and engaged in public debates with the Buddhist monks, eventually winning more than 2,000 Japanese to the Christian faith. Leaving the other, Jesuit priest in charge of the mission, Xavier returned to Malacca after twenty-seven months in Japan[21].
Xavier left Japan with one overpowering impression. In his debates with the Buddhist monks, they often presented an argument that perplexed that Jesuit missionary. They declared that the Christian God could not possibly be the true god of the universe because the Chinese knew nothing of it. This line of reasoning seldom failed in its effect on this, Xavier realized that the Japanese were deeply influenced in all their opinions and judgments by the example of China. After all Japan had in fact taken over its religion, its writing, and almost all its spiritual culture from China; that if the Chinese could be won, the Japanese would follow. Therefore in Japan he spent considerable time expounding the compatibility of the existence of evil with God’s omnipotence and the necessity of the incarnation[22].

RECOGNITION OF XAVIER
Francis Xavier is an Anglican and a Catholic saint. He was beatified by Paul V on October 25, 1619, and was canonized by Gregory XV on March 12, 1622, at the same time as Ignatius Loyola. In 1839, Theodore James Ryken founded the Xaverian Brothers, or Congregation of St. Francis Xavier (CFX). Currently, over twenty colleges or high schools in the United States are Xaverian Brothers Sponsored Schools (XBSS). He is also the patron saint of Australia, Borneo, China, East Indies, Goa, Japan, New Zealand[23].

Many churches all over the world have been named in honor of Xavier. One notable church is the Basilica of St. Francis Xavier in Dyersville, Iowa. It is one of only 52 minor basilicas in the United States, and the only one outside a metropolitan area. There is also a top Canadian university named in his honor in Antigonish, Nova Scotia called, “St. Francis Xavier University”[24].

EVALUATION
Francis Xavier left his mark on Christian history in atleast three ways: as a prime exemplar of the Ignatian ideal, as one of the greatest missionaries in the history of faith, and as an inspiration for modern catholic missions. The Ignatian ideal was to serve the Roman Catholic with complete devotion and unquestioning obedience, revivifying it’s teaching and devotional practices. In particular, Xavier preached the word smoothly rather than boldly, he adopted his methods to suit the situation, utilizing holy craftiness to accomplish pious ends. For example, while the other priests of Goa lived in splendid houses, he, the papal nuncio, took up residence in a modest little room in the local hospital. There he came to contact from all classes and became acquainted with them in an environment in which they were most prepared to listen to spiritual counsel, and through his simple dress, sympathizing nature, gentle and homely words became one among them, at the same time he had every opportunity to obtain accurate information about the life, character, interests, and peculiarities of the people whom he wished to minister. Therefore in India he had won the poor and humble lower castes by impressing them with his humility and by appearing as one of them in his torn cassock and shabby cowl. But in Japan humility was no virtue and poverty was despised, so Xavier put on the most magnificent apparel he could obtain and went about with an imposing retinue. Most importantly he drew upon his splendid university education inorder to cope with the Japanese insistence that he explain reasonably the Christian faith before they would accept it
Francis Xavier was called by many names such as, “Second Apostle of India”, “ Apostle of the Indies”------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- was very busy spending the days on his feet and the nights on his knees. His life of discipline and mortification were simply heroic. He lived utterly for his people and was ready to give up his life for their welfare. It was this shining holiness of his that captivated the hearts of all, especially the children, so that in spite of the handicaps of insufficient knowledge of Tamil and want of transportation and speedy communication, he was so successful in his ministry. To say in a comparatively short period of ten years he had run like a giant through vast areas, strengthening existing churches, founding new ones, converting multitudes and he was forty six years of age when God called His faithful servant to his reward on the dawn of the first of December in the year of the Lord 1554, on the island of Sanchian off the mainland of China.

CONCLUSION

The Chinese merchant who was to have taken Xavier to Canton failed to arrive as promised on November 19th and two days later Xavier fell ill. The next day he was taken to Diogo Pereira’s ship one of the two still in the harbor of Sancian. Since the tossing of the ship annoyed Xavier’s distress he was taken back to the island. There he was placed in a straw hut that was erected by Pereira. His conditioned worsened, during the night of December 2nd and 3rd, Antonio, the Chinese convert who had accompanied Xavier to Sancian as his interpreter could see that his last hour had come. He placed a candle in Xavier’s hand and, as he wrote, watched as “with the name of Jesus on his lips, he returned his soul in the hands of the creator and Lord with great calm and tranquility”. His dying words were: In te, Domine, speravi, non confundar in aeternum , which means (“In you, O Lord, have I hoped; let me never be confounded).

On November 21, he fainted after celebrating a mass. He died on the island on December 2, 1552, at age 46, without having reached Mainland China. He was first buried on Shangchuan Dao’s beach. His intact body was taken from the island in February 1553. It was temporarily buried in St. Paul's church in Malacca on March 22, 1553. An open grave in the church now marks the place of Xavier's burial. Pereira came back from Goa, removed the corpse shortly after April 15, 1553, and moved it to his house. On December 11, 1553, Xavier's body was shipped to Goa. The body, having resisted extensive decay, is now in the Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa, where it was placed into a silver casket on December 2, 1637. The silver casket is lowered for public viewing only during the public exposition which occurs for a duration of 6 weeks every 10 years, the most recent of which took place in 2004. There is a debate as to how the body could have remained incorrupt for so long. Some say that Francis Xavier was mummified, while others argue that the incorruptible body is evidence of a miracle.

[1] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press), 234.
[2] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press), 235.
[3] Ruth A. Tucker, From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983), 59.
[4] Ruth A. Tucker, From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983), 60.
[5] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 234- 35.
[6] Ruth A. Tucker, From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983), 60.
[7] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 235.
[8] http://elvis.rowan.edu/~kilroy/JEK/12/03.html, viewed on 25/09/2005.
[9] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 235.
[10] Ruth A. Tucker, From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1983), 60.

[11] A.M George Jegatheesan, “St. Francis Xavier”, from, The St.Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, edited by George Menachery, Vol-1, (Madras: B.N.K Press Private Limited, 1982), 16- 20.
[12] F.L Cross, The Oxford of the Christian Church, (Yugoslavia: Oxford University Press, 1983), 531.
[13] F.L Cross, The Oxford of the Christian Church, (Yugoslavia: Oxford University Press, 1983), 531.
[14] F.L Cross, The Oxford of the Christian Church, (Yugoslavia: Oxford University Press, 1983), 531.
[15] F.L Cross, The Oxford of the Christian Church, (Yugoslavia: Oxford University Press, 1983), 532.
[16] J.M Villarvarayan, “The Mission and Life of Francis Xavier in South India” from, The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India edited by George Menachry, (Madras: B.N.K Press, 1973), 67-68.
[17] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 237.
[18] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 236.
[19] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 236.
[20] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 236.
[21] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 237.
[22] John D. Woodbridge, Great leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press) 239.
[23] http://francis-xavier.biography.ms/, viewed on 25/09/2005.
[24] http://francis-xavier.biography.ms/, viewed on 25/09/2005.

COMMUNALISM AND JERUSALEM COUNCIL

2008-07-04T10:46:00.000-07:00

COMMUNALISM AND JERUSALEM COUNCIL
(Presented by Lenin on 20th Jan 06.)

INTRODUCTION

It is clear from the church history that the Church was born in the bosom of Judaism, it had developed into two groups. One group of Jewish Christians with a Pharisaic background believed that gentiles as well as Jews must keep the Law of Moses for salvation, thus making Christianity a particularistic sect of Judaism. The other group realized that salvation came by faith in Christ alone and the offer of salvation was for all rather than for Jews only, and that by works[1]. Here the term communalism refers to socialistic approaches between the Jews and the Gentiles which gives rise for controversies. This conference is also one of the most important council in the history of the church and it is also called as, “the Apostolic council”, designates the meeting by leaders of the church at Jerusalem to discuss the implication of preaching a Gospel of grace among the gentiles, which determined that the Mosaic Law did not bind Gentile Christians.

1. DATE AND OCCASION

Acceptance of the date is c.a A.D 50 on the fact that Gallio, to whom tribunal in Corinth, Paul was summoned during his second missionary journey (Acts 18: 12- 17), was proconsul of Achaia, in A.D 51 to 53. If the council was held, as Acts implies, shortly before the journey started, it must be dated to c.a 50.

According to Acts 15, the meeting was occasioned by the arrival of Judaic Christians from Jerusalem who insisted that Gentiles must observe the Mosaic Law. A vigorous controversy ensued, and Paul and Barnabas, with some others, were sent to Jerusalem to present the issue to the Apostles and the other leaders. People like Peter, Barnabas and Paul settled the Question after the defense of Gentile freedom from the law. James’ confirmation of the defense made this view unanimous. The importance of James with regard to this question stemmed from the factors, that he was, “the brother of the Lord” (Gal 1: 19), one of Jesus’ relatives. He was also the head of the Jerusalem church since Peter’s departure (Acts 12: 19). Finally he was the devout observer of the Mosaic Law, a man to whom the most fanatically Jewish of the Christians would listen with respect. The Council on the other hand did not consider or decided less on the question of the binding force of the law on Judaic Christians. The main source of information about the council is Acts 15. It is possible that Gal 2:1 to 10 describes the same meeting from a different viewpoint. However the identification of Acts 15 with Galatians is questioned[2].

2. THE PROBLEM OR THE CONTROVERSY OF THE JUDAIZERS

The rapid flux of the Gentile believers into a new church at Antioch and the successful mission of Paul and Barnabas in the predominantly Hellenistic cities of south Galatia posed a novel problem for the Christian movement, which resulted in the strong opposition among the Jews of dispersion who resisted any modification of legal tradition and who were unready to accept Jesus of Nazareth as the risen Lord. On the other hand the controversy also arose from the legalist teaching of the member of the Jerusalem church who claimed James’ authority, whom he later disavowed (Acts 15: 24)[3] Therefore the problem that Paul face was the scope and means of salvation and so he addressed it to the Jerusalem Council after the 1st missionary Journey[4].

There was a need for the Antioch teachers to come to an understanding with the Apostles and the church at Jerusalem respecting the heathen converts and their relation to the Mosaic Law. That the Messiah’s kingdom was to comprehend the gentiles was assumed on all hands. But the heathen converts were multiplying. Meantime there had been an accession of members to the Jerusalem Church, among whom were converted Pharisees, who carried into the Christian society a stubborn attachment to the legal observances. Like, what was the meaning of the OT promises, what was to become of Jewish precedence in the Messiah’s Kingdom, What was the use in being a Jew if the heathen were to come in without first becoming Israelites in the manner ordained by the Law of Moses? The Judaizers practiced racial discrimination within the context of the Christian church. For e.g. on the basis of the OT law they do not allow or bar gentle Christians from entering the temple area just because he was uncircumcised[5] and they were the ones who quelled by the prevailing temper of the tolerance in the “pillar” apostles and their Jewish Christian followers. Since, Paul being a new convert of Christianity, they continued to dog the steps of Paul, and to foment suspicion against him among Christians of Jewish extractions. They went so far as to deny his claim to be an apostle, as he not one among the twelve. The apostle to the gentiles had a life long conflict to wage with this busy, implacable faction. At the same time, by the Jews who were not converts to Christianity, he was pursued with malignant hate as an apostate from the religion of Moses[6].

3. HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The historical questions surrounding the meeting are formidable. In Gal 2:1–10 Paul gives an account of the conference, which occurred on his second visit to Jerusalem following his “conversion.” He, together with Barnabas and Titus, went “by revelation” to discuss the message he had been preaching among the gentiles. James, Peter, and John are the Jerusalem apostles specifically mentioned as present and in a private meeting “added nothing” to Paul’s gospel. The Jerusalem apostles asked only that Paul and his colleagues “remember the poor,” probably a reference to the offering Paul solicited for the Jerusalem saints. Another result of the meeting was an agreed-upon division of labor, which gave the Jerusalem leaders responsibility for the circumcised and Paul and his colleagues responsibility for the gentiles. Apparently, there was a third group present at Jerusalem (called by Paul “false brothers”), who tried unsuccessfully to force the circumcision of Titus.

The historical problems arise in the effort to connect Paul’s account to the information found in Acts. Acts mentions five visits of Paul to Jerusalem (9:26–30; 11:27–30 and 12:25; 15:1–30; 18:22; 21:17–23:31). The question is: Which account (or accounts, if any) parallels Gal 2:1–10? A number of solutions have been proposed[7].

3. 1. ACTS 11:27–30; 12:25 PARALLELS GAL 2:1–10.

Paul and Barnabas are commissioned by the Church at Antioch to carry the funds for famine relief, and while in Jerusalem, it is argued, they reach a private agreement with the leadership regarding the admission of gentiles to the church (Lake 1933: 445–74). Sometime after this meeting, the dispute between Peter and Paul over table-fellowship occurs at Antioch (Gal 2:11–14), precipitating a second, more public conference at Jerusalem (Acts 15:1–30). The major difficulties with this proposal are the silence of Acts regarding a private meeting at the time when the funds for famine relief are brought and the silence of Galatians regarding a third visit of Paul to Jerusalem[8].

3. 2. ACTS 15:1–30 PARALLELS GAL 2:1–10.

This represents the most widely held proposal and rests on the fact that the persons, the locations, and the issues are the same in both accounts (Lightfoot 1914: 123–28; Hengel 1986: 111–26). The problem with this solution is the insistence on the so-called apostolic decree in the Acts account (“that you abstain from what has been sacrificed to idols and from blood and from what is strangled and from unchastity,” 15:29), which, if actually agreed to by Paul, would invalidate his argument in Galatians. The decree may have come later, after the conference, as a compromise achieved without Paul to restore the broken fellowship between Jewish and gentile Christians[9].

3. 3. ACTS 15:1–4, 12 PARALLELS GAL 2:1–10.

This proposal argues that Acts 15:1–30 actually reflects two conferences, which have been confusingly merged by the author into one. Acts 15:1–4, 12 reports a first conference to answer whether gentiles had to be circumcised to unite with the Church. Paul was present at this meeting and provided his account in Gal 2:1–10. A second conference was held at Jerusalem (Acts 15:5–11, 13–33) to deal with the issue of table-fellowship between Jewish and gentile Christians. Paul was absent from this second conference and thus was not a party to the “apostolic decree” (Weiss 1959: 259–73). The primary difficulty with this third proposal is that Acts 15 does not read like the confluence of two accounts of separate meetings[10].

3. 4. ACTS 18:22 PARALLELS GAL 2:1–10.

The proposal is made that the meeting recorded in Acts 15:1–30 actually takes place later (at 18:22), when a brief note is made of Paul’s greeting the church at Jerusalem. At this visit Paul is asked to “remember the poor,” a request, which he responds to not long after by soliciting, gifts from Christians in Corinth and in Rome. The council must have immediately preceded the writing of 1 and 2 Corinthians and Romans (Knox 1950: 61–73; Lüdemann 1984: 149–57, 195–200). This explanation depends heavily on a Pauline chronology derived exclusively from his letters[11].

3. 5. ACTS 11:1–18 PARALLELS GAL 2:1–10.

A recent proposal postulates the presence of Paul at the discussion recorded in Acts 11:1–18 when Peter silences the criticisms of “those of the circumcision.” The writer of Acts is unaware that Paul and the Jerusalem leaders had a private meeting on this occasion, but the Pauline account is found in Gal 2:1–10. After Peter and Paul have left Jerusalem to engage in further missionary activity, James is pressured by the more conservative Jewish forces in the Church into a second conference at which time the “apostolic decree” is issued, representing a dramatic compromise. Acts 15:1–30 mistakenly records Peter and Paul as present at this second conference (Achtemeier 1987: 44–55). The obvious difficulty with this proposal lies in the speculative suggestion that Paul was present at the occasion of Peter’s speech in Acts 11:1–18[12].

What can be said about the complexity of the historical problems surrounding the council and the variety of proposed solutions? Since Gal 2:1–10 represents the firsthand recollections of a participant at the conference and the Acts material is secondhand, historical priority must be given to Gal 2:1–10 as the normative account. Of the five visits to Jerusalem in Acts, the one mentioned in 15:1–30 seems to resemble most closely Gal 2:1–10 in personnel, structure, issues, and the basic agreement that circumcision is unnecessary for the admission of gentiles to the Church. Whether the visit should come later in the Acts chronology, perhaps at the time of the visit of 18:22, is beyond the scope of this study[13].

How then is one to explain the difficulties with the Acts 15:1–30 account, which represents sharp differences from the report in Gal 2:1–10? The Acts account is woven carefully into a larger narrative through which the writer addresses a prophetic word to the readers. The writer’s intention (as revealed in the narrative) is not to chronicle historical events but to trace the activity of the divine Spirit in the life of the Church and the movement of the Church as a predominantly gentile group “to the end of the earth.” Historicity is not the primary criterion by which the narrative is to be judged. Acts 15:1–30 seems to represent a critical reshaping of sources in order to support the theological purposes of the larger narrative, with its concern for the unity and mission of the Church[14].

4. LITERARY AND THEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Both Gal 2:1–10 and Acts 15:1–30 play crucial roles, respectively, in their literary contexts.

4. 1. GAL 2:1–10.

Paul argues at the beginning of Galatians that there is but one gospel, which exercises supreme authority in the life of the Church (1:6–9). The power of this gospel is evidenced in the remarkable transformation, which it precipitated in Paul’s own experience, a transformation confirmed by the testimony of the Judean Christians (1:22–24). Then comes the report of the Jerusalem Council (2:1–10) through which the Galatian readers discover that the gospel is not idiosyncratically Paul’s, but is agreed to by the pillar apostles at Jerusalem. The mission to the gentiles in whom the Christian message is offered free of the legal demands of circumcision is not to be seen as a sectarian movement. At the heart of the council’s decisions is the mutual recognition of a mission to the gentiles and a mission to the Jews, both empowered by the one gospel of grace. The ensuing report of the conflict between Peter and Paul at Antioch (2:11–14), given of course from Paul’s perspective, merely reiterates that the gospel alone can provide the bond for Christian unity. Readers in the Galatian communities learn that Peter’s action in withdrawing from table-fellowship with gentiles de facto establishes something other than grace as the basis for unity. Later chapters elaborate the character of the gospel in terms of the righteousness of God manifested in the faithful death of Jesus Christ[15].

4. 2. ACTS 15:1–30.

The Jerusalem Council is presented as a response to a dispute at Antioch, which takes place when visiting Judeans insist on circumcision as essential for salvation. Paul and Barnabas, as commissioners from Antioch, report on their mission among the gentiles and are opposed by believers from among the Pharisees. Two speeches are recorded. Peter’s speech (15:5–11) serves to link the council to his previous vision at Joppa and his baptism of Cornelius (10:1–11:18) and to make him rather than Paul the precedent-setter for the mission to the gentiles. James’ speech (15:13–21), citing Scripture, represents a compromise: no demand that gentiles be circumcised but adherence to the “apostolic decree.” A letter embodying the compromise is then drafted for the church at Antioch, which in turn receives it with joy[16].

The council represents a critical turning point in the Acts narrative since the focus shifts from Peter to Paul, from Jerusalem to Ephesus, the Grecian cities, and Rome. The shift is a smooth, not an abrupt one. Continuity is maintained, and the compromise signals that the law continues to have significance for the lives of both Jewish and gentile Christians[17].

5. MEETINGS

According to the scholars the meeting went on for many days. There were three general meetings.
(1)First there was a General Public meeting: as soon as Paul and Barnabas arrive to Jerusalem along with other delegates from Antioch and this time the missionaries gave the report (Acts 15:4-5).
(2) Secondly, a Separate Meeting, consisting of the apostles, elders along with Paul and Barnabas in order to discuss the problem in detail and try to work out a solution (Acts 15:6; Gal 2:2- 10).
(3) Thirdly, a Full Assembly, with whole church to hear from the missionaries and from the Apostles and it was here that the decision was reached, which was agreeable to all those who were present[18].

The relation of the account of Luke with Paul is also under sholarship and the vacillations of Peter eating with the gentiles at Antioch and withdrawal from their company when Jewish Christians appeared (Gal 2: 10ff) seems more likely to have occurred before the council than afterwards. Had the relation of Christian gentiles been already settled, he scarcely have been souncertain of his ownposition. It is much likely that Peter ahd joined Paul and Barnabas intheir fellowship, but had recoiled when he was criticized for eating in the company of Gentiles. Later having reconciled himself after Paul’s rebuke, he championed the Gentiles at the council (Acts 15: 7-11)[19]. There seems little evidence to support the theory of some scholars that Peter and Paul represent not merely different emphases in the early church but thoroughly antithetical theological systems. Peter’s future in Antioch was almost certainly a well motivated but ill-judged step aimed at keeping peace in Jerusalem, without adequate reflection on the damage he was doing to Gentile believers[20].

6. THE SPEECHES

The speeches of Peter and James are given in detail in Acts 15. The comments of Barnabas and Paul are summarized unanimity. The unity of events in 15:1 to 15:29 is the one problem not yet solved with any unanimity or agreement. Some scholars maintain that, while there is basic unity, vv 4 to 5 describe preliminary meeting, vv 6 to 21 a formal one among the official, vv 22 to 29 a final pubic session. Others call vv 1to 29 a composite, a literary summary of decision made by the church with regards to two different but related questions. (1). The first concerned the necessity of the Mosaic Law for Gentile Christians. (2) The second centered around the practical demands to be made on the Gentiles for the furtherance of peaceful common life with the Judaic Christians[21].

Peter: He played a crucial role in the meeting (15: 6-11) claiming that the law did not bind the Gentiles. He argued from the fact from the witness of the HolySpirit who descended upon the uncircumcised gentiles (Cornelius and his household) even as he had upon the Apostles. Peter concluded that is very nearly Pauline: “Now then, why do you try to test God by putting on the necks of the disciples a yoke that neither we nor our fathers have been able to bear? We believe it is through the grace of our Lord Jesus that we are saved, just as they are”(Acts 15:10-11)[22].

Barnabas and Paul: They appealed to the evidence of divine approval implied by the miracles of God had worked among the pagans. They must surely have described the miracles at Iconium (Acts 14:3) and Lystra (Acts 14: 9). The order of the names “Barnabas and Paul”, indicate Luke’s historical accuracy, for at Jerusalem Barnabas would have precedence over Paul.

James: He was the last spokesman (Acts 15: 14-21). As a leader of a church in Jerusalem he could not be accused of partiality to Gentiles, or had his contacts with Paul been so frequent that he would have swayed by Paul’s influence. His decisive words were marked by soberness and fairness. Quoting Amos 9:11,12 from the Greek Septuagint, which differs from the traditional Hebrew text, he asserted that the restoration of David’s tabernacle would induce other men to seek God, even the Gentiles, who had become his worshippers by his use of this text he declared that he anticipated the salvation of the gentiles, whose conversion had been predicated by the prophets. In the light of this prophecy he commended as unnecessary restriction be imposed upon the Gentile converts, and that they be required to observe four rules of comity, they are 1) to abstain from the defilement of idolatry, 2) from sexual promiscuity, 3) from eating the flesh of strangled animals, 4) from blood. Here the four requirements dealt with the practices most repulsive to the Jewish believers. Idolatry was a direct contravention of the first commandments, “thou shall have no other gods before me”(Exodus 20:3). Even if the Gentiles placed no importance on eating meat offered to idols since the images were impotent, they should refrain from any indulgence that would offend their Jewish brethren (1 Cor 10: 25-31). To say fornication was a common sin that violated Jewish standards of chastity and that often accompanied the ecstatic rites of heathen worship “blood” and “things strangled” referred to the dietary laws which were ceremonial rather than moral in essence, but which were so ingrained in the Jewish mode of life that to disregard than would cause needless offense. Here the first two mentioned were both discussed in Paul’s writings to the churches and were a part of the ethical code for Christian and were part of the ethical code for Christian and Jew alike, and the second pair were ceremonial regulations which the church members asked to observe for the sake of maintaining peace. Nowhere in the NT are these two latter stipulations emphasized. They seem to have been forgotten as the separation between Christianity and Judaism became wider[23].

James reminded the church that those who wished to follow the Mosaic Law completely could resort to the synagogues where the content of Torah was expounded every Sabbath. Reiterating the ordinances of the Law would be unessential, since the church existed to proclaim Jesus as the Messiah.[24]It is also clear that from (vv13-18), exclusive of the decree, it also viewed the acceptance of Gentiles into the church as a fulfillment of Amos 9:1 and 2. The crucial part of the citation is “that the rest of mankind may seek after the Lord, and all the nations upon whom my name is invoked” (Acts 15: 17). Such is the text found in the Septuagint, the Greek version of the O.T James, however, would most likely have quoted from the Hebrew, which reads: “that they may conquer what is left of Edom and all the nations that shall bear my name.” The difference makes it appear that the reconstructions of the speech are somewhat artificial. Either James’ word have been made more pertinent by recourse to the Greek versions of Amos or this part of James’ speech owes as much as to Luke, or his source, as to James Himself[25].

7. THE DECREE AND ITS MEANING

The decree is listed three times in Acts: fully in vv 19 to 20 and vv28 to 29 and partially in vv. 21 and 25. The central focus and its importance was the freedom of Gentile Christians from the Law. The formulae, “For the Holy Spirit and we have decided” (15:28), states the apostolic conviction that important church decisions were assisted by the HolySpirit.

The secondary element in the decree was an injunction to the gentile Christians in Antioch, Syria, Cilica indented to make communal life between them and the Judaic Christians less difficult. There are variants in the text at this point, but it is certain that the so- called Eastern text, “to abstain from anything that has been contaminated by idols and from immorality and from anything strangled and from blood, is correct. The partaking of food offered to idols would imply a participation in pagan cults. The eating of meat from which the blood had not bee properly drained would have offended the Judaic Christians, since for the Jews blood was the symbol of life and hence something which pertained to the divine. The “immorality” mentioned probably means marriage within forbidden degrees of kinship. The interpretation is based on the striking similarity between these conciliar injunctions and those of vv17 to 18[26].
8. EVALUATION

Thus it is very clear from Acts 15: 28- 29, “For it seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us….”, that everything was decided under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, explaining that which had been impossible burden for Jews, should not be required of gentiles. This made the church to have a free access upon a larger work for the bringing of all people, of every race, and in every land under the realm of Jesus Christ. Jewish members of the church were expected to continue in their obedience to the Jewish Law, though such leaders interpreted the regulations broadly as St. Paul. But Gentiles could enter the Christian fold by simple faith in Christ and a righteous life, without submission to legal requirements. If one counts the membership after the twenty years one can find that increasingly gentile and decreasingly Jewish; for as the gospel took momentum towards the gentiles and thus left the Jews to grow more and more bitter in their hatred and that is why in this period almost every where it was the Jews who instigated persecutions against the Christians. Therefore it is very clear that the council also had smelled a bit of offensive nature.

CONCLUSION

Therefore it is clear that the total decree of the council was a compromise. It must be interpreted according to its historical setting. The main point was the exemption of gentiles from the law. The rest of the injunctions were given in the interest of peaceful unity and were applied only in localities where many Judaic Christians were to be found outline of Acts no mention is made of them. Paul never refers to them (cf. 1Cor 8: 1- 10 -30) in his epistles, an indication they were only of local and temporary importance. Thus the decision of the council of Jerusalem opened a new era in the expansion of the church. The barrier between the circumcised Jew and the uncircumcised gentiles had been broken by the concession that Gentiles need not keep the law to obtain salvation. The emissaries of the gentile church at Antioch no longer felt under constraint and were able to preach freely anywhere the doctrine of salvation of faith in Christ. As theologians we should also think that the same problem was faced by the reformers, who saw that the Roman church also demanded man-made works in addition to faith as the condition for salvation. To say that the problem of the Jerusalem council was a persistent one, and the principles that were victorious and that was related throughout the history of the church and thereby we can also implement the same principles to the dilemmas in the generation to come.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cairns, Earle E. Christianity Through the Centuries. Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981.

Fisher, George Park, History of the Christian Church. London: Printed by the Trow Directory, 1887.

Freedman, David Noel, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol-3. New York: Doubleday 1997.
Kistemaker, Simon J. New Testament Commentary. Michigan: Baker Book House, 1990.

Marthaler, Berard L. (Ed), New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol-7.Washington: The Catholic University of America, 2003.

Tenney, Merrill C. New Testament Times. London: Wm B. Eerdmans Company, 1965.

Woodbridge, John D. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago: Moody Press, 1988.
[1] Earle E. Cairns, Christianity Through the Centuries, (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981), 67.
[2] Berard L. Marthaler (Ed), New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol-7, (Washington: The Catholic University of America, 2003), 772.
[3] Merrill C. Tenney, New Testament Times, (London: Wm B. Eerdmans Company, 1965), 239.
[4] George Park Fisher, History of the Christian Church, (London: Printed by the Trow Directory, 1887), 22, 23.
[5] Simon J. Kistemaker, New Testament Commentary, (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1990), 548.
[6] Ibid, 23, 25.
[7] David Noel Freedman, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday 1997), 766.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid, 767.
[10] Ibid.
[11] David Noel Freedman, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday 1997), 766.
[12] Ibid, 767.
[13] Ibid.
[14] David Noel Freedman, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday 1997), 768.
[15] Ibid, 768.
[16] Ibid.
[17] David Noel Freedman, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, (New York: Doubleday 1997), 768.
[18] Simon J. Kistemaker, New Testament Commentary, (Michigan: Baker Book House, 1990), 543.
[19] Ibid.
[20] John D. Woodbridge, Great Leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press, 1988), 18.
[21] Berard L. Marthaler (Ed), New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol-7, (Washington: The Catholic University of America, 2003), 771.
[22] John D. Woodbridge, Great Leaders of the Christian Church, (Chicago: Moody Press, 1988), 17-18.
[23] George Park Fisher, History of the Christian Church, (London: Printed by the Trow Directory, 1887), 22, 23.
[24] Merrill C. Tenney, New Testament Times, (London: Wm B. Eerdmans Company, 1965), 249-50.
[25] Berard L. Marthaler (Ed), New Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol-7, (Washington: The Catholic University of America, 2003), 772.
[26] Ibid.

ECI Church History

2008-07-04T10:18:00.000-07:00

Evangelical Church of India
Introduction
No movement in the Indian church history can be compared to the uniqueness of Evangelical Church of India, especially in its area of being a model of hope and in the area of transformation. This also adds to its credit as both the Christian leaders and also the secular leaders like Billy Graham, Sri. Rajiv Gandhi, Dr. McGavran (Father of the world church growth) and Dr. Ben Wati has applauded the works of ECI, especially the work through the hands of Bishop Dr. Ezra Sargunam, in his efforts towards a holistic mission which is very much needed in the today’s world.[1] It is not only them but also there are many who say that the model of ECI can be followed to multiply the church growth in our nation. The factors that add very much to this glory is just because they emphasized on the great commission (which adds both the preaching and the follow up ministry), in the steps of faith by the founders who were prayer warriors and visionaries with high principles. These basic principles have led to the tremendous growth and the impact of ECI towards the evangelicals and the liberals as well.

2. Origin of Evangelical Church of India
It was the Oriental Missionary Society that gave birth to this Evangelical Church of India. We notice the tremendous work of Oriental Missionary Society first in Japan in 1901 with its founders as Mr. Charles E.Cowman and Mr. E. Kilbourne[2]and from the beginning OMS international was an under denominational society with the three-fold emphasis upon, (1) the establishing the Bible seminaries and training institutions (2) intensive and extensive evangelism (3) the planting of indigenous national churches in the various countries in which it operates. The society conducted the first nation wide house-to-house scripture distribution campaign between 1912 and 1917 in Japan, and since that time similar systematic campaigns have been conducted in a number of countries. By the time the Japanese government forced amalgamation of all Protestant Churches in Japan in World War II, the church established the OMS international in Japan was the fourth largest Protestant body[3] with some 400 churches,[4] later the ministry spread to Korea in 1907 which made zealous evangelizing churches with a tremendous revival[5] and now there are nearly 2,000 congregations with about 500,000 membership[6] and more than 600 organizations[7]. The church there is known as Korea Evangelical Holiness church, the third largest protestant denomination in South Korea. China was next entered where three seminaries were opened and indigenous churches established. Contact with those seminaries and the church had been lost owing to change of policy of the government there. [8] Later it was with the green signal from the Lord that when the door of China was closed for the Gospel, the door of India opened in the early 1941 and the first was the seminary opened in 1942, July at Allahabad. This Oriental Missionary Society (newly called as OMS international) gave birth to the now so-called “Evangelical church of India.”[9]

In 1941 OMS began its work in India it thought of starting a Bible College and their first step is a revival magazine known as “Uyir Muuchi” means, “to give new life or to redeem life” introduced in 1950.[10] which enlightened the minds of the people and it was Dr. Samuel from YMCA helped with the burden to started a Bible study on Wednesdays, and it was appreciated all over India, later this was conducted in the night school and later it was started with 50 registering themselves for the regular Bible school in July 9, 1953, which is now the Madras Theological Seminary.[11]and it presently operates three Bible seminaries in Allahabad, Calcutta and in Chennai and it also runs Bible schools in places like Mumbai, Vijayawada, Lalitpur, Orissa, Solan, Gangavathy, and Gujarat with a training centers in Kozhivilai and among these two are Serampore affiliated colleges and in total there are eleven other Bible Schools[12] and it also has one Bible School in Myanmar.[13]

The OMS was called as Evangelical Christian Church and then Evangelical Church of India. [14]The first church was planted somewhere in 1952 and till 1967-68 the OMS field Executive committee was in charge of the administration of the church through their appointed national and missionary leaders, but after 1969-70 amendments, ECI became fully autonomous and elected its own leaders and OMS withdrew their administrative control.[15] The Church now had Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kanarese, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Manipur, English and Konkani[16] linguistic congregations numbering about 1610 in all most all the states and union territories and the administration divided into various ecclesiastical dioceses, areas and districts under the All India Conference of ECI. ECI had a goal to have 1000 churches by the year 2000, but it reached that objective by 1998 and since then they target towards 2000 churches by 2005. To say after several years of deliberation ECI has adopted Episcopalian form of church where Rev. Dr. Ezra Sargunam was elected as the first bishop of the Evangelical Church of India, and was concentrated on Feb 13th 1993. Further it has vision to formulate five dioceses with their head quarters at Madras, Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Hyderabad with five bishops with the All India Administrative Office in Madras with the registered office in Allahabad under one All India Conference and One board of Governors and there is hope that the Christian groups will integrate within the framework of the ECI. OMS international is now actively working in the following countries: Japan, Hong Kong, Korea, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Greece, Spain, Columbia, Ecuador, Brazil, Haiti, Philippines, France, China and Russia.[17]

Early Growth and Development of ECI
To begin the early stage of growth, one needs to remember this person named Dr. David Rigby, one of the early missionaries who contributed a lot for the growth of the church. In 1954, the Oriental Missionary Society assigned Dr. Rigby to Madras and in a short while he started an outreach of the Bible Seminary and sent students out in evangelistic work during the weekends. Then he came across Rev. John Piet of the Arcot Mission who had used a series of ten leaflets in evangelism all over Tamil Nadu, which very much delighted the Dr. Rigby’s soul. So he drew up a plan t use ten tracts a series in a given area for ten weeks and then evangelize that area and press for decisions and baptisms. Therefore to implement this plan, they choose Saidapet as the first area. After ten weeks of tract distribution, a public meeting was arranged. Three Hindus accepted Christ in a remarkable way. A small house was rented in that area and the seminary students looked after this house-church. In this way by 1955, three house churches were established. At that time they were not called churches, but rather “Preaching Points.” The graduates of this seminary became the pastors of these small congregations. In this way urban church growth became the key to the village people movements.[18]The churches did not become an end in itself, but rather it is only a means to an end.[19] “Our ultimate aim must be to plant churches which in turn would plant churches, and on and on without end” says Dr. Ezra Sargunam.[20]Therefore the ECI, each tries to establish a daughter church e.g. Kilpauk ECI church known as “Seminary Church” is the mother church of ECI church in Villivakkam and Ayyapakkam.[21]
Dr. Ezra Sargunam, the President of the Evangelical Church of India, took this to a new level. This is because when the president came into leadership in 1972 he began to take the great commission even more serious. His heart towards planting churches in the nook and corner of India made the gospel reach the masses. His aim was to plant 1000 churches before A.D 2000. Till 1972 there were only 30 churches in the ECI, but after 1972 churches began to grow rapidly under his dynamic, persuasive, caring, loving and shepherding leadership.[22] Though the subsidy for these churches and seminaries were by the Oriental Missionary Society, it was then announced that ECI needs to raise 70% of the fund and only 30% would be from the OMS. Therefore in the 1988 All India Conference Dr. Ezra Sargunam expressed his concern for self- supporting.[23]

Activities of Evangelical Church of India
Educational Activities
ECI stresses more the educational systems and so establishes many schools with the view to educate the poor and the needy children as one its objectives includes founding, conducting and maintaining schools.
2. Social Activities
It has not only created an impact in the stage of education, but has extended its hand towards social concern programmes for the needy in different part of the nation. These works are credited to Dr. Ezra Sargunam who had the ability and the potential to the various projects, which others were not able to do. His ability to enlist the co-operation and funds of others has helped him secure resources for the implementation of his vision for the ECI.[24]
2.1 Relief and Community Development Programme
ECI cares for the poor and the needy. Hundreds of villagers have been benefited as they have constructed hand pumps in the drought areas of South India. It also helps the poor people who are keeping small shops, houses, purchasing tailoring machines, cows and buffaloes, rickshaws, etc for their livelihood. During Rev. Dr. Ezra Sargunam’s Golden Jubilee Year, 50 cycles, 50 rickshaws, 50 tailoring machines etc were granted to the people. ECI also under takes cyclone relief operations. 50, 000 coconut seedlings were granted under “A coconut tree for every home” scheme. There were rope-making industries established in Kerala and free school uniforms for the poor are given. It has ten centers all over India, they are: i) Arumbakkam Community Development Project, (Chennai) ii) Uttamnagar Slum Development Project (Delhi), iii) Govindpuri Family Development Project (Delhi) iv) Dakshinapuri Family Development Project (Dakshinapuri), v) Dum Dum Family Development Project (Calcutta), vi) Shimla Community Development Project (Shimla) vii) Gandhi Nagar Sewing School (Vijayawada), ix) Prakash Nagar Sewing School (Vijayawada), x) Karumanoor Rope Making Unit (Kerala).[25]
2.2 Day Care Centers
Since most of the women today go out for jobs, there is no one to look after the family. So they can send their children to crèche. In this crèche, children are provided nutritious food like milk and biscuits at 11 and also lunch at 1. It work from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. Everything is free for them to encourage them and keep the children happy. The have both indoor and outdoor games, songs and Bible stories are also taught to them.
2.3 Health
The community has developed in medical services too. A doctor visits three days in a week and about 15- 20 patients come for treatment every day. The community development services of the ECI have been more pronounced in the areas of health viz. family planning, pre-natal, and post-natal care, immunization and nutrition through films. House visits and street vise meetings are also conducted. Ten houses are visited by their health staff every day. They also create an environmental cleanliness, care during pregnancy, family welfare, nutrition, causes of leprosy and its prevention. They also visit the houses in Arumbakkam. It has also started puppet shows regarding health, sanitation etc. These programmes have had a greater impact in the society.[26]

Objectives of ECI
The objectives of ECI is to manage, control, maintain, endow, and advance the work of this organization on a non-profit basis as a religious and charitable organization for the promotion of Christian evangelism, church planting, education, and Christian relief.
To provide from the funds towards expenses of the church buildings, parsonages, parish halls, school buildings, libraries, guest houses, living accommodation for workers, employees, servants, pastors, teachers, doctors, nurses, hostels for students, seminaries, playgrounds, hospitals, clinics, book shops, destitute homes, orphanages etc.
To provide funds for publishing, Christian books, tracts, pamphlets, films, cassettes and for mass communication.
To provide medical care for all those are in need regardless of caste, creed, race, sex or any social status.
To provide for the training in cottage industries, handicrafts and handlooms for those deprived of jobs.
To employ ministers for the work of the Gospel by holding meetings, lectures, seminars, retreats, and camps and to use radio or television in order to organize churches, educate people in the knowledge of the truth. To also invite Christians from abroad to aid and assist in carrying out the objects of the society.
To engage in educational works by building and maintaining schools, colleges, theological seminaries, training courses and to employ lectures and teachers for the same.
The one main objective of the Evangelical Church of India is to see that these above objectives does not remain in paper only, but rather to be implemented at all cost.

3. The Church
3.1 Introduction
As the early apostles went forth preaching everywhere and people were born of the spirit and cleansed from their sin, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit were formed into small congregations called churches. The converts who became members of these churches were urged to come together regularly for spiritual fellowship. Worship and breaking of the bread prayer and reading of the scripture (Acts 2: 42; Heb. 10: 25). As congregation were formed into different places similarly the ECI church helps it members to become the people establish firmly in their faith as its purpose is to form these groups into small congregations.[27]

3.2 Formation of the Local Churches
The aim of the ECI is to form a church where there is atleast 20 adults who profess to be born again and who will also collectively and individually pledge themselves to take the word of God as the only sufficient rule for both faith and practice and to follow the system of doctrine and government laid down in their manual, and whose average monthly offering is not less than Rs500/- and assessment Rs200/- can take application to form a local church. So such a group must apply in writing to the nearby Area Council or District Administration Committee. But is the application is from an unorganized district or Area/ Dioceses Council will deal with it directly of through the nearest council and if the request is from a group within an organized district, the district administrative Committee/ Area Council will make necessary arrangements for the church formation. In situations where the ECC/IMM has pioneered the work at their requests the Area Council or District Administration Committee will arrange for the organizing of the church.[28]

3.2.1 Procedures
The Area Council or District Administration Committee will appoint one or two of its members or instruct a chairman to call a meeting of the group for the purpose of investigating whether the group is ready to become a local church or not, and on the basis of the recommendation the Area Council or District Administration Committee will take necessary action.[29]

3.2.2 Government of the local Church
The government of the local church shall be vested in a committee of elders of the church and the pastors. These elders shall be nominated by the nomination committee. Only full members shall be given the privilege to hold office in a local church. The pastors shall be the Chairman of the committee. All persons holding office should be known for the sanctified character and ability for the work the church calls them. They should also be persons who faithfully support the church. They should also be persons who faithfully support the church. They should give satisfactory evidence of having a love for souls and desire to be useful to their fellow men. The elders Committee shall consist of pastors and elders not exceeding seven. In addition to this each church can have deacons and deaconesses according to its need. All elders shall be of equal rank so also deacons and deaconesses.[30]

3.3 Office bearers of the local church and their functions

3.3.1 Pastor
The pastor shall be the Chairman of local Church Committee. The duties of the pastor in the local church is to preach faithfully the full Gospel as found in the word of God, to exercise spiritual oversight and have the general guidance under the Holy Spirit of the religious services, and to care for the interests of the congregation calling their attention from time to time to the church Covenant and Advice to Members. If ordained or specially permitted he shall administer the sacraments. To preach over, all Elders Committee meetings of the church. Should he be convinced that any action of the Committee is contrary to the general policy of the church, he shall report the same to the district Administrative Committee\ Area council. In the same ,manner the majority of the committee members have the right of appeal to the District Administrative Committee \ Area council should they consider any action of the pastor is not in the best interests of the ministry. To preside over all other Committee meetings such as Youth Fellowship, women’s Fellowship and where not possible, he shall depute some one on his behalf. To appoint some one to record in the absence of the Secretary all the proceedings and decisions of the Elders Committee Meetings making true entries of the same in a journal kept for that purpose. All Registers, Account Books, Pass Books, Cheque Books past and present and record books of all departments of the church, after such are full or in disuse shall be under the custody of the pastor. He shall be responsible for all church correspondence. He shall make a monthly report to the District Chairman\ Area Chairman. To outline in conjunction with Area Chairman the normal weekly schedule and programme of evangelism.[31]

3.3.2 Local Church Committee
The Local Church Committee shall also be called Elders Committee. The Elders nominated by the Nomination Committee of the local Church after their installation shall function as the Local Church Committee. The Committee shall meet at least once a month at the call of the pastor more often if necessary. Vacancies in the Elder Committee will be filled by co-option. The Area Council or the District Administrative Committee shall be informed of theirs change. Their function shall be, to plan advances programmes for the local church, to Prepare Annual Plan budget, to set up short and long range goals; in evangelism and outreach, to assign one of the leader as the recording secretary of The Elders Committee, Receiving of new members as per the manual, to implement the decisions of the Area Council and periodical instructions from the Bishop, Examining of baptismal candidates, Approving of monthly statement of accounts, Cooperating with the pastor in the total ministry of the church.[32]

3.3.3 Deacons and Deaconesses
The deacons and Deaconesses shall assign the following duties to them according to their talents and needs in the local church. No deacon or Deaconess will serve in the same capacity for more than two terms of four years.[33]

Their Function is to Coordinate in Sunday school, vacation Bible school, Youth and women Fellowship Ministries, to coordinate in regular Cottage Prayer Meetings and church planting ministries, to Coordinate in taking care of the poor, widows and the sick, to coordinate in missionary agencies like IMM, ECI, Prayer Calendar, Church Planter, and Nirubam, and finally to serve as ushers and assist the cahier in receiving and counting of offerings.[34]

3.3.4 Cashier
He shall under no circumstances be an Elder, and he is responsible for receiving the tithes offerings and subscriptions etc., from the Deacons concerned after they have been duly counted and entries made in the register, to maintain the books of accounts, cheque books monthly statement of accounts and deposit the money in the bank or in the District Treasury, to make disbursements without the consent of the Elders Committee\Pastor, to get the pastor’s endorsement on all payments, vouchers and bills, to attend the Elders Committee meting without voting right and to perform his duties under the direction of the pastor in the church office.[35]

3.3.5 Recording Secretary
The duties of the recording secretary is to prepare the notice and agenda of the Elders committee meetings in consultation with the pastor\ Chairman and send circulars to this effect, to record all proceedings and decision of the Elders Committee meetings in the minute book and read the same in the subsequent meeting.

3.4 Sacrament
Regarding the Lord’s Supper, the notice of the sacrament should be given on the preceding Sunday. Those who have experienced the regenerating grace of the Lord Jesus Christ should be invited to participate. The pastor should give the spiritual warning with regard to participating unworthily (I Cor. 11: 30), the responsibility for participating being placed upon the individuals concerned. Persons desiring to take Communion should be invite to come forward to the front portion of the church, if such is convenient. The use of individual cups is approved and as usual they believe in the immersion mode of baptism which is in the name of the triune God.[36]

3.5 Dress Codes
Ordained Members of the Evangelical Church of India are permitted top wear as appropriate clerical gown while conducting services and ceremonies in areas where the public expect them to appear in clerical attire.[37]

4. Special Features of Evangelical Church of India
4.1 The Training Structure
They are not like traditional seminaries that train, “Parish Priests” for their denominations, but rather they look beyond from producing pastors for established churches. They actually train their own leaders by having a knit program between the church and the seminary students, so that they may be molded in the way that ECI is structured, but then again this is also not a compulsory one for the students to work there.[38] With these many Bible schools and colleges, nearly twelve of them in different places which serve as excellent places for recruiting, training and mobilizing the young people for the church planting ministry. The whole ECI movement started with Allahabad Bible Seminary (Dr. Ezra Sargunam graduated from there), then the MTSC came into existence and then all other Bible colleges and schools. Thus the Bible Schools played a major role to plant thousands of ECI churches.[39] The other ministries are, Every Creature Crusade team exists to wake up the churches that are sleeping in their area of evangelism and this team consists of six members.[40] Missionary Training Center it was started in chitlapakkam near Tambaram , which gives six months training, which sends missionaries to different states. [41]Evangelical Explosion III Clinic it was started in 1985 by Rev. Dr. Ezra Sargunam to help the people in the physical problems.[42]

4.2 The Sending Structure
Every Creature Crusade (ECC) and Indian Missionary Movement are the sending structures for ECI. ECC teams have made a great contribution in planting churches for ECI. ECC is primarily a mission agency and it is a sending agency. ECC has the uniqueness of being a mission agency and that is important in the over all ECI church planting ministry. Most of the present ECI pastors have had the background of working of several years in ECC teams and this helps them to keep the evangelical fervor.[43]

4.3 The Church Structure
ECI has set a trend for the emerging churches in India. To say over 1300 (present statistics 2006, Jan.) has been planted by the ECC teams all over India has been consolidated and conserved by the structure created by ECI denomination. These churches are planted and governed by the graduates of their colleges itself, which is a tremendous, plus point in the growth and the safety of the mission. To say ECI has chosen itself to be evangelical in faith, Episcopal in its governing structure which serves as a backbone in this ECI movement.[44]

Evaluation
To admit on a whole there a lot of things that has impacted me as I came across this movement, though the question of its continuity today of all these facilities and factors are questioned at random, by any observer or reader, but still what people trace for is the achievement that ECI has made and what are the strategies that it has adopted in these last six decades which had much to impact the whole nation. As we know that ECI has its birth from the OMS, one of the most primary things that is quiet noticeable is the continuity of the transferring of the vision of the founders to the young leaders who took up the leadership in the same spirit. ECI though it has its own set of principle and formalities, it is seen to be having the adoption and the accommodation theory not basically in the statement of faith but in the area of indigenization, as they do not disturb the cultural values and the systems of the people. They focus on church planting which is basically from the students who are brought up in the set up of the ECI faith statements, focus on transformation of the ministers of God who minister with the same attitude of transformation, which will for sure help in the ministries of ECI. Their focus is also towards the responsive member of the Gospel, i.e. to say they very much emphasis on the follow up ministry, which many many churches utterly fail to do. As their name goes as evangelicals, their church growth is through the power encounter ministry, which is very necessary in traditional villages bound under the clutches of sin and satan and the greatest and the strangest thing that we find in ECI is that though they have the name evangelical the preachers are given license on the basis of their theological status and the belief system so that they do not create chaos in the churches by injecting their own doctrines, which I feel will enrich and nurture the church very much, since qualified preachers can have a larger impact on the congregation as preaching is not something playful and does not come directly from the Holy Sprit, but through prayerful preparation. The other beautiful thing is that the ministers are ordained according to their testimony and according to their qualification in various levels. The strategy of Paul, i.e. by establishing the church in two or three important centers Paul claimed that he preached the Gospel from Jerusalem to round about Illycrium, and the same had worked well with ECI as they plant churches in the important centers in the villages, cities, towns, districts and states. This is to say that these important centers will be responsible for the surrounding places, which is the best method to be adopted, which the other movements do not practice. The method of building churches through the day care centers, Social Development projects has also worked well for the people to respond to the gospel.

Though the negative part on their side it is depend on the foreign currencies, but still “Bishop Dr. Ezra Sargunam is trying to make it self-supporting…” says J. Esther. Still we see the heart of giving which many mission organizations fail utterly and this is thoroughly one by the motivation provided by the leaders of all levels towards all the ECI believers to involve in one way or the other in the evangelization according to one’s capacity. Their influence at both the physical and the spiritual had made it more popular among people of all faiths, which the present churches and movements should take well notice in order to implement in their ministries so that the church in itself is well organized, but at the same time among the people has its theory of accommodation. My evaluation will be utter futile without mentioning the works of Bishop Dr. Ezra Sargunam who made his influence in the extensive level, noteworthy of all the improvements and transformation of all that is through ECI, as his leadership is seen at the decision making level which has made a large church growth i.e. to say the ECI has grown from 100 in 1970’s to 2500 in 2005, which is because of his passion and commitment. Today’s churches need people like him with the same amount of passion and commitment to take the church to a higher level which not only impacts the Christian community but which also has its penetration to all arenas, both the political level and the religious level. People cannot sit in hungry stomach and hear the gospel; therefore we need to feed them to make the gospel and the love of God true in their lives. Building them socially i.e. to say not to support them, but rather “to help them to help themselves” should be our motive and aim and not isolate ourselves as spiritual giants (which the evangelicals do) nor to focus only on their social up building, minimizing the great commission (as the liberals do), but rather to be a mixture of both so that social and spiritual becomes the nucleus and also the indivisible table agents for today’s ministry to be driven with real purpose with the savior like heart. According to Esther, ‘The Reason for their success is their ministry among the low caste, out caste, urban evangelism, their strategy of mother churches producing daughter churches and every church should be a church planter’ (43)[45] and which I think the present churches should fully focus on to see a bright future for the present churches and to see the progress of our present humanity as a whole.

Conclusion
As any other evangelical would have, even Evangelical Church of India has a vision to see the nation discipled for Christ. To say in the level of statistics they have made a tremendous growth in the last 65 years of their ministry in our nation. Their slogan, “Preach, Persuade, Plant” has encouraged a lot of the church planters and the other ministers of God to willingly pay the price in sowing, watering, nurturing, weeding, harvesting and gathering the grains in the barns. J. Esther comments “These achievements all because of the hard working and the untiring clergy man,” of Dr. Ezra Sargunam.[46] Which cannot be one man toil but a community that was willing to pay the price with burden and with the vision of the founders. Thus they were able to do just not the healing in the spiritual sides of the people but healing and transformation in a wholistic level which both the liberals and the evangelicals fail in one way or the other.

Bibliography

Sargunam, Ezra Multiplying Churches in Modern India. Kilpauk, Chennai: Federation of Evangelical Churches of India, 1974.

Sargunam, Ezra (Ed), Mission Mandate II. Ayanavaram. Chennai: Mission Educational Books, 2006

[n.a], Manual of the Evangelical Church of India (Chennai: Evangelical Church of India, 2004.

Internet Sources

Retrieved from http://www.indianchristianity.org/evangelical1.html on 26/11/2006 at 5:00p.m.

Unpublished Thesis

Esther, J. “History of Evangelical Church of India”. Chennai: University of Madras, 1990.

[1] Dr. Ezra Sargunam (Ed), Mission Mandate II (Ayanavaram, Chennai: Mission Educational Books, 2006), 423-24.
[2] M. Ezra Sargunam, Multiplying Churches in Modern India (Kilpauk, Chennai: Federation of Evangelical Churches of India, 1974), 55
[3] Retrieved from http://www.indianchristianity.org/evangelical1.html on 26/11/2006 at 5:00p.m.
[4] Ibid, 2.
[5] M. Ezra Sargunam, Multiplying Churches in Modern India , 56.
[6] Ibid, 3.
[7] Opcit.
[8] Ibid, 3.
[9] M. Ezra Sargunam, Multiplying Churches in Modern India, 60.
[10] J. Esther, “History of Evangelical Church of India” (Chennai: University of Madras, 1990), 19-20.
[11] J. Esther, 19, 21.
[12] Retrieved from http://www.indianchristianity.org/evangelical1.html on 26/11/2006 at 5:00p.m.
[13] Ibid.
[14] J. Esther, 23
[15] Ibid, 4.
[16] Retrieved from http://www.indianchristianity.org/evangelical1.html on 26/11/2006 at 5:00p.m.
[17] [n.a], Manual of the Evangelical Church of India, 4-5.
[18] J.Esther, 29- 32.
[19] J. Esther, 39.
[20] Rev. Dr. Ezra Sargunam, Multiplying Churches in Modern India (Madras: n.p, 1974), 177.
[21] J.Esther, 44.
[22] J.Esther,
[23] Ibid, 54.
[24] J. Esther, 86-87.
[25] J. Esther, 87-88.
[26] J. Esther, 91.
[27] Ibid, 11- 12.
[28] Ibid, 13.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Ibid, 14.
[31] [n.a], Manual of the Evangelical Church of India, 14- 16.
[32] Ibid, 16.
[33] Ibid.
[34] Ibid, 17.
[35] [n.a], Manual of the Evangelical Church of India, 17- 18.
[36] Ibid, 57.
[37] Ibid.
[38] Dr. Ezra Sargunam (Ed), Mission Mandate II, 425-26.
[39] Ibid, 433.
[40] J. Esther, 96-97.
[41] J. Esther, 100.
[42] J. Esther,
[43] Dr. Ezra Sargunam (Ed), Mission Mandate II , 433.
[44] Ibid.

[45] J. Esther, 36, 43.
[46] J. Esther, 28.